Page numbers followed by the letter t refer to tables. Page numbers followed by the letter f refer to figures.
Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) Assessment Tool, 5, 97
Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) Rule, 3–7, 10, 26–27, 36–37, 92n12, 122n6, 192–93; advantages and benefits of, 212, 217–19; assessments of, 185–86, 193–94; benchmark of, 137; building on the groundwork of, 210–13; in California and Connecticut, 217, 233; conclusions concerning, 229–33; context of, 212–17; differences the AFFH Rule could make to other federal housing programs, 219–22; and the dismantling of residential segregation, 169–70; as a form of meta-regulation, 97; as an improvement upon previous housing regulations, 229–30; inspiration for, 63–64; and local autonomy, 218; mandate of, 12, 23–24, 31; normative goal of, 127; the Obama administration’s work concerning, 24–25, 159–60, 186n1; partisan divide concerning, 97–98; praise for and criticism of, 6; process of, 120–21, 222; process benefits of, 217–19; promises of, 27–31, 32–34; proposed revisions to, 34–35; protests concerning, 31–32; and public education, 140; support by civil rights organizations for, 28–30; support by community organizing groups and affordable housing advocates for, 30; tensions that shaped drafting of the rule, 25; in the Twin Cities, 47. See also Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) Rule, key innovations of; Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) Rule, skepticism concerning; Assessments of Fair Housing (AFHs); Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and the AFFH Rule Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing(AFFH) Rule, key innovations of, 86; AFFH as a tool for future action, 86–87; broadening and access of for opportunities in areas of racially or ethnically concentrated poverty, 87–88; empowering inclusive local dialogue and planning, 89–91; local determined priorities inclusive of place-based reinvestment and mobility, 88–89
Affirmatively Furthering Fair Housing (AFFH) Rule, skepticism concerning, 128; methodological reasons for skepticism, 130; practical reasons for skepticism, 130–31; what AFFH overlooks, 138–39
African American/Black people 169, 200, 202; as elected officials, 15; exploitation of Black labor, 13; home ownership of, 7; households of, 7, 17; income disparities between whites and, 200–201; median income of Black households, 8; neighborhoods of, 55–56; portrayal of as helpless victims, 60–61; poverty rates in neighborhoods of, 8–9, 47; and restrictive property/real estate covenants used against, 48; movement to the suburbs, 53–54; white violence toward, 48; young adults, 7. See also ghettos, changing perceptions of
Alinsky, Saul, 58
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU),51, 61
American Jewish Congress, 51
Americans for Democratic Action, 59
Analysis of Impediments (AI) process, 215, 217, 222; reviews of the process, 22–23, 75–76
Assessments of Fair Housing (AFHs), 5–6, 28, 93–94, 95–96t, 122n6, 230, 231–32; coding categories for, 100t; as mandated by the AFFH Rule, 216; participants in the assessment process, 94–95, 97–99; process of, 216–17; results of, 99, 101–2, 104, 106–7; share of assessment goals containing measurable objectives or new policies, 101t. See also Hidalgo, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study; Kansas City, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study; Seattle, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study; Temecula, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study
Baker, John T., 153
Bauer, Catherine, 139
Berry, Brian J. L., 57; on the housing service program as a “dismal failure,” 70n36
Biden, Joe, 36; proposed housing plan of, 9
Black Lives Matter movement, 8, 10, 11, 36, 233
Black Panther Party, 58
Black Power, challenges issued by to housing integration, 57–59
Blumenberg, Evelyn, 200
Booker, Cory, 9
Briffault, Richard, 218
Brooke, Edward, 62
Brown v. Board of Education (1954), 18
Brownsville: household income distribution,184f; racial and ethnic composition, 184f
Buchanan v. Warley (1917), 16–17, 18
Buttigieg, Pete, 9
Campbell, Carlos, 61
Carmichael, Stokely, 57–58, 153
Carson, Ben, opinion concerning the AFFH Rule, 35–36
Cashin, Sheryll, 218, 224n16, 225n26
Castro, Julián, 3–4, 160; proposed housing plan of, 9
Cervero, Robert, 200
Chetty, Raj, 129, 130, 199, 201
Chicago, 20, 60; violent crime in the Gautreaux program, 195–96, 203; working-class communities of, 57. See also Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN)
Chicago Freedom Movement, 56–57
Chicago Housing Authority, 25, 49
Choice Neighborhoods Initiative, 152, 221
Cicero, Illinois, 57; violence in concerning Black marchers in white neighborhoods, 19
civil rights, 216; advance of 215; aims of, 220; compliance with, 212, 220; conception of, 221; federal commitment to, 211; federalism model of, 222; and “inclusive regulation,” 224n15; incorporation of civil rights best practices, 222; mainstream civil rights organizations, 153; opportunities for, 217. See also civil rights advocates; civil rights movement Civil Rights Act (1866), 13–14, 16
Civil Rights Act (1964), 22, 54
Civil Rights Act (1966), Title IV of, 59, 60, 70–71n44, 71n46
Civil Rights Act (1968), Title VIII. See Fair Housing Act (1968) civil rights advocates, 25, 26, 53, 54, 64, 147, 232; and the banning of racial zoning, 47; concern over the enforceability of the AFFH Rule 31; denunciation of FHA by, 50; hopes of, 218; hostility toward, 211; and HUD, 29
civil rights movement, 7, 12, 56, 57, 229; growth/progress of, 52, 153; relative failure of in Chicago, 20; southern, 54
Clark, Kenneth, 54–55
Cloward, Richard A., 58
Collison, Robert, 131
Colored Farmers’ Alliance, 15
community action programs, 58
community development, 26, 89, 91n1, 134; advocates of, 75, 77, 150–51; funding for and investment in, 22, 66, 107, 17; organizations representing, 145, 146, 149. See also fair housing, challenge to community development Community Development Block Grant (CDBG) Consolidated Plans, 5, 6, 9, 10, 21, 75, 79; amendments to, 22; CDBG grantees, 83, 84, 99; municipal goals and CDBG funding, 104, 106
Community Development Corporations (CDCs), 153
Community Planning and Development (CPD), 80
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 57, 153
Connecticut Civil Liberties Union, 165n40
crime, increase of in the core areas of large cities, 54
Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (Clark), 54–55, 61
Davis, Morris, 130
deindustrialization, 4
De la Roca, Jorge, 201
Department of Defense (DOD), 72n55
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 3, 4–6, 9, 23–24, 26–27, 30, 147; application of the fair housing review criteria to all its program (1995), 65; block grant recipients of, 215, 221; Congressional requirements concerning, 223n1; and the criteria for Community Development Block Grant funds, 72n56; and the determination of area median income (AMI), 174, 188–89n31; development of the Location Affordability Index (LAI) by, 161; efforts to revise the AFFH Rule, 206; and federal funding to support affordable housing, 127–28; first secretary of, 50; grantees of, 5, 22–23, 28–29, 30, 35, 76, 77, 79–80, 84, 86, 93–94, 102, 107, 120, 210, 232; infrastructure of for enforcement and compliance, 78–79; new policies of under the Obama administration, 211; non-discrimination requirements of, 59; obligation of to AFFH, 210; original vision of, 139; oversight function of, 210–11; rationale for and related evaluation research, 128–30; reviews of Analyses of Impediments (AIs) by, 22–23, 75–76; and Section 808
of the Fair Housing Act (1968), 64; siting restrictions on, 154–55; skepticism concerning, 128; and the Small Area Fair Market Rent Rule, 170, 177, 221; subsidiary role of in the fair housing provisions of the 1966
Civil Rights Act, 59–60. See also Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and the AFFH Rule
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and the AFFH Rule, 74–75, 91, 92–93; overview of the reasons for HUD support of the AFFH Rule, 75–77; and the process of crafting the AFFH Rule, 28, 120–21; response of to the support for and criticism of the AFFH Rule, 31; theories of the policy process concerning AFFH, 85–86. See also Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), process to formulate the final AFFH Rule
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), process to formulate the final AFFH Rule, 77–78; Phase 1: initial failed attempts, 78–80; Phase 2: the pivot to success, 80–81; Phase 3: unexpected political uncertainty and delayed publication of the rule, 81–82; Phase 4: publishing and implementing the final AFFH Rule, 82–84; Phase 5: AFFH and the Trump administration, 84–85
Dirksen, Everett, 62
Donovan, Shaun, 75, 76, 78, 80, 82, 83
Douglas, Paul, 60
Duhl, Leonard, 71n46
Duncan, Greg J., 195
Earls, Felton, 205
Ellen, Ingrid Gould, 131, 201, 204
Enterprise Community Partners, 145
Environmental Health Index, 194
fair housing: fair housing activism, 148, 149; first steps toward, 52–53; incorporation of crime and violence data into the assessment of fair housing, 203–6; local control of, 33–34; meaning of, 11–12; and residential preferences, 194–98; and violence, 192–93. See also fair housing, challenge to community development; fair housing, history of; fair housing spatial strategy, three stations of
fair housing, challenge to community development, 145–46, 160–63; fair housing and community development as two movements, 146; origins of the tension between fair housing and community development, 152–56; separate agendas of fair housing and community development programs, 147–49; and the spatial distribution of tax-credit housing, 156–57. See also Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. The Inclusive Communities Project (2015)
fair housing, history of, 12–13; first attempt at establishing a national fair housing act, 59–60; legislative arguments in support of, 60–63; the Reconstruction Amendments and the Civil Rights Act of 1866, 13–16
Fair Housing Act (1967), 60
Fair Housing Act (1968), 4, 12, 16–27, 52, 72n54, 76, 91n1, 104, 106; court cases concerning, 224n11; framework/contours of, 21, 210; as the “last plank” of civil rights legislation, 21; mandate/obligation of, 169, 214; Mondale’s support of, 20, 61; obligations of on the federal government, 148; origins of, 47–48; passage of, 63; provision of (Section 808) that inspired AFFH, 63–64; requirements, of, 21; scope and application of, 214; violations of, 219
Fair Housing Amendments Act (1988), 21, 40n63, 64–65
fair housing spatial strategy, three stations of, 149–50; 1: Opening exclusionary communities, 150–51; 2: Preventing further segregation, 151–52; 3: Dismantling of low-income communities of color, 152
Fair Share Housing Center of New Jersey, 149
Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Report System of, 204
Federal Housing Administration (FHA), 17, 47, 59, 60, 64; criticism of its racial policies, 50; NAACP pressure on to modify its racial policies, 50–51; support of for the development of suburbs, 50
Fair Housing Initiatives Program (FHIP), 98
federalism, 23, 212, 218; cooperative federalism, 34, 215, 216, 217, 222
Ferere, Gerald, 61
Gabbe, C. J., 200
Gans, Herbert, 132, 137; on neighborhood integration, 140
Gautreaux Assisted Housing program, 25
gentrification, 6, 9, 32–33, 109, 174, 178, 182, 231; definition of, 170, 188n27; fears of, 171; gentrification-induced displacement, 110
ghettos, 61, 153–54; changing perceptions of, 53–55; and the “culture of poverty,” 54, 69n23; “gilding the ghettos,” 153; “racial ghettos,” 47–48, 55–56
Gill, Charlotte, 204
Government Accountability Office (GAO), study of AI’s by, 22, 75, 76–77, 87
Great Depression, 17
Greater New Orleans Fair Housing Action Center, 219
Gregory, Jesse, 130
Griffiths, Elizabeth, 204
Haberle, Megan, 25, 33–34, 231
Hardman, Anna, 132
Harris, Kamala, 9
Hartley, Daniel, 130
Hartman, Chester, 26
Hayes, Rutherford B., 15
Hendren, Nathaniel, 129, 130, 199, 201
Hidalgo, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study, 114–17; and the Collaborative Interlocal Agreement, 115; and the Hidalgo County Collaborating Program, 116; initial AFH goals of, 115–16; initial rejection of Hidalgo’s submission by HUD, 114–15; revised AFH goals of, 116–17
Hill, Laura, 153
Hills v. Gautreaux, 425 U.S. 284 (1976), 25
Hipp, John, 204
Hispanic people, 202. See also Latinx people
Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA [1975]), 90
Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC), “Residential Security Maps” of, 17
HOPE VI program, 152
Horne, Frank S., 49
Housing Act (1954), 18
housing choice vouchers (HCVs), 217, 220, 222
Housing and Community Development Act (1974), 21–22
Housing and Home Finance Agency (HHFA), 52, 53 Housing New York: A Five-Borough, Ten-Year Plan, 174
How the Federal Government Builds Ghettos (NCDH broadside), 58–59
Industrial Arts Foundation, 58
industrialization, 15
integration maintenance programs, 155–56
Inwood/Washington Heights: Inwood household income distribution, 181f, 183f; Inwood racial and ethnic composition, 181f, 183f
Ioannides, Yannis, 132
Javits, Jacob, 20
Jim Crow era, 138
Jobs Proximity Index, 194
Johnson, Andrew, 14; Amnesty Proclamation of, 13
Johnson, Lyndon B., 20, 50, 55, 60, 62, 63, 153.See also War on Poverty
Johnson, Olatunde, 224n15
Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co. (1968), 16
Jordan, Reed, 229
Kansas City, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study, 117–20; clarity and specificity of its fair housing goals, 118; and funding issues, 119–20; and input from the Mid-America Regional Council (MARC), 117, 118, 120; and the issue of the definitions of R/ECAPs, 117–18; total number of AFH goals of, 118–19
Katz, Lawrence, 128, 130, udwig199
Keels, Micere, 195
Kelly, Nicholas F., 212, 229, 232
Kennedy, Albert, 138–39
Kerner, Otto, 20
Kerner Commission, 20, 61, 62, 153
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 18–19, 56, 70n35; assassination of, 20, 62; speech of concerning access for Blacks to housing and education, 19–20
Kingdon, John, 76–77
Kline, Patrick, 201
Kling, Jeffrey R., 129, 196, 199–200
Klobuchar, Amy, 9
Krivo, Lauren, 204
Kulieke, Marilyn, 196
Landis, John, 200
Latinx people, 169, 200; home ownership of, 7; median income of Latinx households, 8; poverty rates in neighborhoods of, 8–9; young adults, 7. See also Hispanic people
Lens, Michael, 25, 33, 200, 204, 230
Levitt, William, 52 Levittowners, The (Gans), 132
Liebman, Jeffrey, 129
Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC), 145
Location Affordability Index (LAI), 161
Los Angeles County, 205–6
Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program, 151–52, 156–57, 165n40, 215, 220, 222
MacDonald, John, 204
Malcolm X, 57; on integration as a “deception,” 153
McGhee v. Sipes (1948), 49
Mendenhall, Ruby, 195
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 51
Milliken v. Bradley (1974), 218
“Minneapolis 2040” plan, 8
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 57
mobility, upward, requirements of, 138–39, 141–42
Model Cities program, 58–59
Molotch, Harvey, 155
Mondale, Walter, 12, 60; on “black racists,”71n50; on the necessity of the Fair Housing Act, 20, 61
Moses, Robert, 51
Movement for Black Lives, 10
Moving to Opportunity for Fair Housing (MTO), 25, 33, 129–30, 150, 195, 203; in Baltimore, 197–98; benchmark of, 137; reasons given to for moving away from crime-ridden neighborhoods, 196–98
Moving to Work Demonstration (MTW), 221
municipal characteristics, descriptive statistics concerning, 98t
NAACP, Boston Chapter v. HUD (1st. Cir.1987), 24
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. See Kerner Commission
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 203
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 16; campaigns of against racial zoning, 48; challenges to the FHA’s racial housing policies by, 50–51; challenges to public and private practices excluding African American homeseekers by, 17–18, 24
National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials, 30
National Association of Real Estate Boards, 17
National Committee Against Discrimination in Housing (NCDH), 47, 51–52, 58–59, 60, 154; campaign of for open occupancy (“How to Break Up the Racial Ghetto”), 55–56; drafting of model anti-discrimination laws by, 52; political influence of, 52–53; promotion of New York City and State laws, 68n15; report concerning active fair housing committees in New York City (1965), 68n18
National Community Reinvestment Coalition, 29
National Conference on City Planning, 17
National Council of La Raza, 29
National Farmers’ Alliance, 15
National Low Income Housing Coalition, 30
National Neighborhood Crime Study (NNCS), 204
Negro Ghetto, The (Weaver), 50
neighborhoods, 199–200; economic considerations concerning, 131–33; dispersion of low-income households to higher-income neighborhoods, 131–32; effect of poverty on household outcomes, 199; improvement of the quality of life in low-income neighborhoods, 141–42; integration of, 140; poor neighborhoods as good neighborhoods, 139–42; promise of racial equality in, 232–33; public interest in more racially and ethnically diverse neighborhoods, 132; resistance of residents to lower-income housing opportunities, 132–33; what matters most to neighborhoods, 198–203. See also Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN)
Nesbitt, George B., 71
New Jersey Committee against Discrimination, 52
New York City, 170, 187n9, 219; Assessment of Fair Housing program (Where We Live NYC), 233; campaigns in by open housing advocates, 55–56; change of in population density, 180f; community redevelopment plan for East New York, 175; index of median gross rent and real median renter income, 173f; inflation-adjusted median household income in, 173f; tenet movement in, 32–33. See also Brownsville; Inwood/Washington Heights; New York City, affordable housing crisis in
New York City, affordable housing crisis in, 171; and gentrifying neighborhoods, 176; housing production not enough to meet housing demands, 171–72; lack of affordable apartments for low-income households, 172–74; and median household income, 172; rent increases rising faster than wages, 172; and rezoning in East New York (Zoning for Quality and Affordability), 175–76; strategies to achieve more affordable housing, 174–76. See also New York City, affordable housing crisis in, dilemmas incurred as a result of New York City, affordable housing crisis in, dilemmas incurred as a result of, 175–77; distribution of benefits and the burdens of growth, 177–79; prevention of displacement without segregation, 179–185
New York State Committee on Discrimination in Housing, 51
New York University Furman Center, 172, 174; definition of gentrification, 188n27
Nixon, Richard M., 21–22
North Carolina, 15
Obama, Barack, 74, 81, 131, 159–60, 211; approach of to AFFH program design, 220; expansion of HUD programs by, 221; legacy of, 217; regulatory initiatives of, 222–23
Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO), 78, 80
Office of the General Counsel (OGC), 80
Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 81
“open housing” movement, 19
O’Regan, Katherine, 201, 204, 212, 232
Oregon, creation of statewide multifamily zoning in, 8
ownership, and public housing, 137–38
Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID), 200–201
Papachristos, Andrew W., 203
Peng, Zhong-Ren, 200
Peterson, Ruth, 204
Pierce, Gregory, 200
Piven, Frances Fox, 58
place: place-based investments, 25–26; role of in socioeconomic mobility and racial equity, 7–11
Policy Development and Research (PD&R), 80, 82
Populist (People’s) Party, 15
poverty: concentrated poverty, 87–88; and the “culture of poverty,” 54, 69n23; effect of on neighborhood household outcomes, 199; poverty rates in African American neighborhoods, 8–9, 47; poverty rates in Latinx neighborhoods, 8–9
President’s Committee on Equal Opportunity, 63–64
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN), 202–3
public education, and the “no excuses” model, 140–41
Public Housing Authorities (PHAs), 30, 79, 83–84, 211, 220, 221–22, 223, 232
Public Housing Authority Plans, 6
Public and Indian Housing (PIH), 80
Qualified Allocation Plans, 156, 165n36; of New Jersey, 157; of Texas, 157
Rabig, Julia, 153
racial zoning covenants, 47, 48; in government-sponsored housing, 49; NAACP campaigns against, 49; Supreme Court cases concerning, 48
Racially and Ethnically Concentrated Areas of Poverty (R/ECAPs), 87–88, 111, 117–18, 194
Raver, C. Cybele, 203
real estate binding covenants, 17
Reconstruction, 13; “Redeemer” governments in the post-Reconstruction era, 15; white elites’ opposition to, 15–16
Rental Assistance Demonstration (RAD), 221
Resident Advisory Board v. Rizzo (E.D. Pa.1976), 23–24
Robert Taylor Homes, 195
Romney, George, 21
Rosenblatt, Peter, 197
Rosenbaum, James, 195
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 50
Rubinowitz, Leonard, 196
Rudenbush, Stephen, 205
Rutledge, Edward, 62
Sacramento, California, 204
Saez, Emmanuel, 201
Saltman, Juliet, 154
San Antonio Independent School District v.Rodriguez (1973), 218
Sanchez, Thomas, 200
Sanders, Bernie, 9
Sandoval, Onésimo, 200
School Proficiency Index, 194
Schurz, Carl, 13
Seattle, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study, 107–12; challenges of to HUD metrics and limitations, 110–11; creation of Seattle’s Race and Social Justice Initiative, 108; focus of on broad conversation about equity, 109; and the Mayor’s Resolution, 31577, 108; and the Seattle 2035 Growth and Equity, 108; and the Seattle 2035 Growth Management Plan, 108; and the struggle to balance place-based and mobility-based initiatives, 109–10; and the suspension of the AFFH Rule, 112
segregation, 72n55, 184, 213; and the conundrum of housing discrimination and racial segregation, 64–66; and discriminatory public policies, 149; dismantling of, 169–70; increase of between 1880 and 1940, 17; municipal segregation zoning ordinances, 16, 17; prevention of, 151–52; public and private housing discrimination, 48–51; resegregation, 170
Shannon v. HUD (1971), 151
Sharkey, Patrick, 68n15, 200–201, 203, 204
Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), 16, 18, 49, 50
Shen, Qing 200
Sidney, Mara, 63
Small Area Fair Market Rent Rule, 170, 177, 221
Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Mt.Laurel, 336 A.2d 713 (1975), 25
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 18, 19, 56
Steil, Justin, 229
St. Louis Census tract 11-A, 136–38
Stoll, Michael, 200
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 57, 153
Stuyvesant Town, legacy of, 51–52
Sustainable Communities Initiative, 221
Tan, Kegon, 130
tax-credit housing, spatial distribution of, 156–57
Temecula, Assessment of Fair Housing (AFH) case study, 112–14; HUD’s proposed changes to Temecula’s AFH, 113–14; initial AFH goals of, 113; positive relation between Temecula and HUD, 114
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, 200
Texas Department of Housing and Community Affairs v. The Inclusive Communities Project (2015), 35, 157–59
Tirado-Stayer, Nicole, 203
Transit Trips Index, 194
Troutt, David, 218; on “binary capitalism,”225n25
Truly Disadvantaged, The (Wilson), 198, 199
Truman, Harry S., 50
Trump, Donald, 35, 84–85, 160, 213, 219, 223; repeal of the AFFH Rule by, 11, 36, 75; tweet concerning the AFFH Rule, 11
Turner, Margery, 199
Uneasy Peace (Sharkey), 203
United States: civil unrest in (1967), 20–21; decline of home values in, 8, 18; home ownership in, 7–8, 10–11; structure of governance in, 8, 15
United States ex rel. Anti-discrimination Center of Metro New York, Inc. v. Westchester County (2006), 24
United States Housing Authority (USHA), Racial Relations Service of, 49
Urban Development Action Grants, 24
Urban Villagers, The (Gans), 137
US Constitution, 14–15; Thirteenth Amendment of, 13; Fourteenth Amendment of, 14, 16–17, 18, 49, 61; Fifteenth Amendment of, 14
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corporation (1977), 218
Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas (1974), 218
von Hoffman, Alexander, 12, 230
Voting Rights Act (1965), 55
Wallace, George, 20
War on Poverty, Community Action Program of, 58
Warren, Elizabeth, proposed housing plan of, 9 Warth v. Seldin (1975), 218
Watson, Tom, 15
Wax, Amy, 140–41
wealth, racial and ethnic disparities in, 7–8
Weaver, Robert C., 49–50, 53, 59, 71n46; on the effects of discrimination, 61
Westchester County, New York, 24, 132
White, Michael, 131
White, Walter, 50
whites, median income of, 8
Wilkins, Roy, 71n49
Wilmington Massacre (1898), 15–16
Wilson, William Julius, 198
Woluchem, Maia, 229
Wood, Elizabeth, 49
Wood, Elmer, 139
Woods, Robert, 138–39
Works Progress Administration (WPA), 50
Yates, Daniel, 204
Yes in My Backyard (YIMBY), 9
Young, Iris Marion, 146
Zone of Emergence (Kennedy and Woods), 138–39
zoning, 175, 177, 231; banning of racial zoning, 47; exclusionary zoning, 9–10, 23, 48, 214, 219; “expulsive zoning,” 178; inclusionary zoning, 134; model zoning codes, 118; municipal segregation zoning ordinances, 16, 17; NAACP campaigns against racial zoning, 48; racial zoning, 16–17, 48–49, 64; rezoning in East New York (Zoning for Quality and Affordability), 175–76. See also Oregon, creation of statewide multifamily zoning in; racial zoning covenants