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Islam, Justice, and Democracy: Islam, Justice, and Democracy

Islam, Justice, and Democracy
Islam, Justice, and Democracy
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table of contents
  1. Cover
  2. Title Page
  3. Copyright
  4. Dedication
  5. Contents
  6. List of Illustrations
  7. Acknowledgments
  8. 1. Introduction
  9. 2. Islam and Democracy: A Never-Ending Debate
  10. 3. Historical and Conceptual Foundations of Justice Discourses in Islam
  11. 4. Islamist Justice Theory
  12. 5. Between Order and Freedom: Islamism and Justice Discourses
  13. 6. New Islamist Movements, Justice, and Democracy
  14. 7. Distributive Preferences, Individualism, and Support for Democracy
  15. 8. Constitutionalist Movements, Arab Spring, and Justice
  16. 9. Conclusion
  17. Appendix A
  18. Appendix B
  19. Notes
  20. Bibliography
  21. Index
  22. About the Author

Index

Page numbers followed by the letter t refer to tables. Page numbers followed by the letter f refer to figures.

Abdelkader, Dina, 4, 39

Abduh, Muhammad, 42, 133

Abrahamian, Ervand, 55

Abū Bakr, 54–55, 60

Abu-Dhar al-Ghifārīy, 59, 61

Acemoglu, Daron, 43

Affendi, Abdelwahab El-, 36

Afghānī, Jamāl al-Dīn al-, 17, 31, 42

Ahmed, Shahab, 31, 37–38, 47

Akif, Mehmed, 70–71, 76–77

AKP (Justice and Development Party), 74, 89–92, 94–95, 151, 156

ʿAli, 34–35, 54–55, 59–61, 154

Al-Ṣadr, Muhammad Bāqir, 48, 63, 65

altruism, 8f, 9. See also benevolence; charity; zakat

Amaeshi, Kenneth, 15

American hegemony, 68, 74, 86–87

And Once Again Abu-Dhar (Shariati), 59

“And Seek Their Council in the Matter” (Kemal), 134

An-Náim, Abdullahi Ahmed, 3, 22–26, 28, 48, 102, 109

antiausterity movement, 105

Anticapitalist Muslims movement, 91, 93–95

anti-imperialism, 76, 85–87, 157

Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150

Arab Spring: Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150; authoritarianism and, 138; conception of justice and, 132, 135–141, 156–157, 158; constitutionalism and, 130–132; economic injustice and, 137–138, 140–141, 140f; as evidence for desire for democracy, 2; outcomes of, 135–136, 150, 159; as part of history of democratic revolt, 5, 13–14; Revolution of Smiles in Algeria, 129; rulers response to, 38; Saleh in Egypt, 129; in Tunisia, 130; “You Stink” movement in Lebanon, 129. See also individual movements; protest behaviors

Association for Human Rights and Solidarity for the Oppressed (Mazlumder), 94–95

autocratic regimes: Arab Spring and, 138; benevolent, 10, 37–38, 42–43; collectivist orientations and, 111f, 112–113; distributive preferences and, 111f, 112–113; exploitation of charity value of, 43; obedience value and, 44; political justice trajectory and, 42–43; political preferences revealed in interviews and, 99–104; WVS data on support for, 113–114

Ayoob, Mohammed, 77

Baqir al-Sadr, Muhammad, 12

benevolence: Islamist justice theories and, 46, 62, 66; Qutb and, 66, 109; Shariati on, 58, 62–63, 66, 109; support for democracy and, 108–109; tendency toward democratic preference and, 9; as underpinning of social justice trajectory, 7, 43. See also charity; public interest

Boix, Carles, 43

Bouazizi, Mohamed, 2, 130, 136

Bulaç, Ali, 73, 75–76

capitalism, 54, 69, 86–87

charity, 8f, 9, 43, 46, 52–53, 62, 108. See also benevolence; public interest

Christianity, 6, 50, 110

circle of justice, 5, 38

civil war (first, A.D. 657). See succession crisis

Cold War, 68, 70. See also communism

colonialism, 17, 69, 130, 157

communism, 12, 50, 54–55, 72, 82, 85–87

Comte, Auguste, 16–17

constitutionalist movements: Arab Spring and, 130; encounters with West and, 130; ideas of Kemal and, 134–135; in Istanbul, 131; justice discourse and, 42, 132–136; in Ottoman Empire, 131–135; in Qajar Empire, 131; Urabi Revolt, 131, 133, 135

corruption, 93, 138–140, 139f, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148t, 150

counteressentialist scholarship, 11, 16–17, 20–21, 106, 134

Crone, Patricia, 34

Darling, Linda, 4–5, 132, 135

Davis, Nancy J., 108, 123–124

democracy: Arab-majority country support for, 2, 138; association with the West and, 102; collectivism and, 111f, 112–113; counteressentialist theories and, 11, 16–17, 20–21, 106, 134; cultural compatibility theory and, 15–16; dignity (karama) and, 3; distributive processes and, 126, 127t; early modernist Islamic scholars and, 20; essentialist approach to, 2, 11, 16–20, 23, 106; El Fadl and, 25–28; forbearance norms and, 10, 26, 31; free will/predestination dichotomy and support for, 110–111; Islamic values orientation and support for, 26, 106–107; justice discourse analysis and, 88–90; path to in West, 131; political justice trajectory and support for, 107, 109–112, 111f; political preferences revealed in interviews and, 99–104; rebellion against tyranny theme and, 131; religion vs. science data and, 124–126; religiosity and, 120, 123–124, 126, 153, 158–159; role of enlightenment values in, 16–17; scholarship of paths to democracy in Muslim-majority countries, 22–25, 28; self-determinism and support for, 126, 127t, 128, 158; self-direction and, support for, 126, 127t, 128, 158; sharia and, 3, 126; source of government and, 25–27; WVS data on support for, 113–114, 118, 119t, 120–121, 122t

desert, 78, 96–97, 104

dignity (karama), 3

Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), 70

Durkheim, Émile, 17

economic distribution: Arab Spring and, 137–138; democracy and resolution of, 22; Industrial Revolution and, 6; Qutb’s social justice theory and, 50; social justice trajectory and, 43; support for democracy and, 108–109. See also benevolence; public interest; welfare provision

Edip, Halide, 135

egalitarian policies, 43, 108–109, 121

Egypt, 5, 42, 48, 133, 135

EliaçIk, İhsan, 73, 83–84, 90, 93–94, 105

Emek ve Adalet, 90

Emre, Akif, 90, 94

Ennahda movement, 150

equality of men, 50–51, 96, 99

equality of opportunity, 96

Esposito, John, 21

essentialist scholarship, 2, 11, 16–20, 23, 106

El Fadl, Khaled Abou, 3–4, 25–28

Fanon, Frantz, 55

Farabi, Abu Nasr al-, 39–40

Filali-Ansary, Abdou, 8, 20

Finke, Roger, 124

fitna. See succession crisis

forbearance norms, 10, 26, 31, 40

freedom of conscience, 48, 50–51, 62–63, 66

free will: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 109–110, 111f; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; Islamic justice theories and, 48, 62, 66; as philosophical underpinning of political justice, 8f, 35–36, 154; political preferences and, 9, 41, 107, 110–111; succession crisis and historical discourse around, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154; support for democracy and, 159; WVS and individualism data, 123

Gellner, Ernest, 17–18

Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151

Ghannūshī, Rāshid al-, 12, 48, 63–64, 102, 150

globalization, 12, 68, 74, 82–83

Gülen Community, 64

Hamdi, Elmalılı, 70

Hashemi, Nader, 3, 23–25, 28

Hayreddin Pasha, 133

History of Social Justice and Political Power in the Middle East, A (Darling), 4–5

Hodgson, Marshall, 36, 94

Hoffman, Michael, 142, 146

human agency, 48, 50–53, 57–58, 62, 152. See also free will

Huntington, Samuel, 17, 19–20

Ibn Khaldun, 18, 40

Ibn Taymiyya, 7, 39–40, 77, 83

“institutional forbearance”, 10. See also forbearance norms

interviews: association of democracy with the West and, 102; conceptions of justice revealed by, 96–99, 104; justice and Islam in, 98; methodology, 4, 6, 12–13, 95–99, 153; political preferences and justice conceptions in, 99–104; skepticism about systems of governance, 99–104; themes of, 95–96, 104; and WVS data, 123

In the Shade of the Quran (Qutb), 49

Iqbal, Muhammad, 20–21

Iran, 37, 44, 100, 131–133

Iranian Revolution, 7, 37, 72, 132

Islam: autocratic tendencies and values of, 3, 8f; democratic tendencies and values of, 2–3, 8f; essentialist approach to democracy and, 2; Gellner’s high and low, 18; Islamist justice theory’s approach to, 46–47; Kedourie’s enlightened absolutism theory, 18; Lewis’s historical approach, 19; native democratic theories and, 2; positivist philosophy and, 16–17; Shariati’s understanding of, 55; views on antithesis to progress and, 16–17

Islamic scholarship: essentialist, 2, 11, 16–20; El Fadl’s focus on justice, 25–27on paths to democracy in Muslim-majority countries, 22–25

Islamic scripture, 25–26, 39, 48. See also Muhammad

Islamism: anti-imperialism and, 76–77; defining, 75–78; as nonreactive, 76–77. See also Islamist journals; Islamist justice theories; Turkish Islamism

Islamist journals: American hegemony and, 12, 68, 74; book’s use of, 4, 6, 87; definitions of justice and, 67; discourse analysis method and, 12, 68–70; during Cold War, 12, 67; globalization and, 12, 68, 74; neoliberalism and, 12, 68, 85; political justice trajectory and, 11–12; social justice trajectory and, 11–12; Turkish Islamism’s use of, 73–74. See also justice discourse analysis

Islamist justice theories: An-Náim and, 48; comparisons of, 64–65; freedom of conscience and, 63; free will and, 46, 63; private property and, 61; schism of early prophetic community and, 60–61; social justice as praxis and, 48, 52–55, 63; tawhid and, 63. See also Qutb, Sayyid; Shariati, ʿAli

Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy (Hashemi), 23

Istanbul Think House, 95

Jabrī school, 35, 110

Jamal, Amaney, 142, 146

jawr (tyranny), 33

just government, 83–84, 87

justice (al-‘adl): Abdelkader’s work and, 4; Arab Spring and conceptions of, 132, 135–141, 151; concept of divine justice, 33; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; counteressentialist scholarship and role of, 11, 20; El Fadl’s treatment of, 3–4, 25–27; and foundation of democratic ideal, 3; historical origins of conception of, 5, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154; interviews and themes of, 81–82, 95–99, 104; political justice dimension, 6–7, 8f; political preference and, 8f; primacy of shaping Muslim political attitudes, 3, 32, 152, 157; religious roots of, 5; role of in Islamic faith, 1; semantics of, 33; social activism and, 92; social justice dimension, 7–8, 8f; trajectories of, 6, 8f; Western development of concept of, 6. See also political justice trajectory; social justice trajectory

justice discourse analysis: advantages of with regard to Turkish Islamism, 69–70; American hegemony and, 68, 86–88; anti-imperialism in, 85–87, 157; communism and, 82, 85–87; democracy in, 88–90; equality and rights and, 82; globalization and, 82–83, 88; just government/just state theme in, 83–84, 87; methodology, 78, 79f, 80; myriad of voices in Turkish Islamism, 74–75; political reform theme in, 83–85; schematic of analysis, 80f; social order theme and, 63, 83–85, 87; sociopolitical context for Turkish Islamism, 69–74, 82, 88; sources of, 67–68; Turkish journals and sources for, 78, 79f, 80; zulüm/zulm (oppression) in, 81–82

Justice Interrupted (Thompson), 5

justice state theory (Eliaçık), 84

just testimony, 99

Kara, İsmail, 70, 75–77

Karakoç, Sezai, 71–72

Karl, Terry Lynn, 22

Kedourie, Elie, 17–18

Kemal, Namık, 17, 31, 76, 134–135, 141

Khadduri, Majid, 7, 37–38

khalifa (men as God’s viceregent): al-Ṣadr and, 63; connection to concept of justice and, 32; democracy and, 20, 25, 159; Ghannūshī and, 63–64; Islamist justice theory and, 46–47, 54; Kemal’s ideas and, 134; political preferences, 42; succession crisis, 110; themes of in interviews, 99

Khanani, Ahmed, 3

Kharijites, 31, 34–35, 98

Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl, 71–72, 77

Koçi Bey, 39

Kuru, Ahmet, 8, 39

Labor and Justice Platform, 91, 93

law: in Cold War-era Turkey, 70; equality under, 96; Islamic jurisprudential theory, 8, 39; medieval, 43; pluralistic framework and, 3; Qutb and, 52, 54, 61; Shariati’s approach to, 61; social justice trajectory and, 40

Levitsky, Steven, 10

Lewis, Bernard, 18–19, 132

liberation theology, 6, 55

March, Andrew, 3

Marwani caliphs, 36

Marx, Karl, 17, 55

Mawdudi, Abu al-A’la, 31, 48, 63, 65, 72, 102

mazalim courts, 30

Menchik, Jeremy, 3

Meşrutiyet, 133

methodology: Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150, 153; interviews, 4, 6, 12–13, 95–99, 153; Islamist journal survey, 4, 6, 12, 153; public-opinion surveys, 4, 6, 12, 153; World Values Surveys (WVS), 13, 113–118, 119t, 120–121, 122t, 153

Milestones (Qutb), 48

Mongol invasion, 7, 38, 41, 69, 155

Moore, Barrington, Jr., 131

Muʿāwiya, 34, 54–55, 59–60, 154

Muhammad: benevolence and, 109; on equality of men, 51; on justice, 157; political struggle with al-Maʿmūn, 22; Shariati’s depiction of, 59; succession of, 6–7, 33–37, 60–61, 154; zakat and, 108

Murad IV (Sultan of Ottoman Empire), 39

Muslim Brothers (Egypt), 48

Muslims: development of justice conceptions for, 32–34; interpretations of Muslim values by, 2; obedience of the ruled and, 53; political preferences of devout, 101; skepticism of modernity from colonizing West, 20, 22; “way of life” (din) approach to, 47. See also interviews; protest behavior

Muslims’ Initiative against the Violence toward Women, 94

National Order Party, 89

neoliberalism, 12, 68, 73, 85–87

Nursi, Said, 12, 48, 63–65, 70, 84

On the Perfect State (Farabi), 39

Orientalism, 17, 47

Ottoman Empire, 39, 69, 76, 131–133

Ottomanism, 71

Pitlik, Hans, 115–116

political accountability, 25, 31, 41

political justice trajectory: Arab Spring and, 140–141; collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 109–110, 111f; early Islamic political struggle and, 107; ethicalist vs. realist vision of power and, 36; free will/predestination dichotomy, 110–111; historical nature of focus of, 32; historical roots of, 33–37, 107; Islamist justice theory and, 48; political preferences and, 11–12, 41–43, 107, 109–112, 111f, 152–153, 155–156; rebellion vs. obedience dichotomies and, 36–37

political struggle: circle of justice concept and, 5, 38; democracy and resolution of, 22; political Islamists of twentieth century and, 24; role of religion in, 22–24; succession of Muhammed and, 5–7, 9, 32, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154

popular sovereignty, 25, 35, 41–42, 64, 110

power relations, 96–97

predestination: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 110; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; legitimization of authoritarianism and, 42; as philosophical underpinning of political justice, 8f, 154; political preferences and, 9, 41, 110–111; succession crisis and historical discourse around, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154

private property, 19, 61, 65

protest behavior: antiausterity movement and, 105; Arab Spring and, 13–14, 31, 129–130; Batman protestor, 105; corruption and, 138–140, 139f, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148t, 150; distributive preferences, 146; economic pessimism and, 140, 144, 147f, 148f, 150; Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151; Kharijites, 31; Koran readership, 145t, 146; Ottoman constitutionalists and, 31; outcomes of, 135–136, 150, 159; political access and, 144, 145t, 147–148, 147f, 148f; political justice concerns and, 42, 141–142, 147, 150; political trust and, 138, 139f, 142, 144, 147f, 148f, 150; religiosity and, 31, 141–142, 144, 145t, 146–149, 147f, 148f, 149, 150–151, 153; social justice concerns and, 141–142, 144, 145t, 147, 147f, 150; support for democracy and, 105–106; unemployment and, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148f; Urabi Revolt, 131, 133, 135. See also Arab Spring

public interest (maṣlaḥa): circle of justice concept and, 38; as early manifestation of the social justice trajectory, 7–8, 37; forbearance norms and, 10, 31; goals of Islamic law and, 31; medieval era and, 43, 155; obedience to rulers and, 9; as philosophical underpinning of social justice, 8f; political preference and, 107; and support for authoritarian rule, 38; support for democracy and, 108. See also benevolence; charity

public-opinion surveys. See Arab Barometer surveys; World Values Surveys (WVS)

Qadarī School, 35, 98

Qutb, Sayyid: avoidance of religious/secular dichotomy and, 47; benevolence and, 66, 109; charitable acts and, 12; criticism of Western societies and, 49; economic distribution and, 50, 53–54; focus of just political order, 12; golden age early prophetic community as model, 48, 54, 60; grounding of political justice in doctrine and, 31, 48; human agency and, 48, 50–52; influence of Islamist thought, 63; Muslim Brothers and, 48; private property and, 61; response to communist/capitalist systems of Cold War and, 49; social justice as praxis and, 48, 52–55; tawhid (unity) principle and social justice theory of, 48–50, 54; translation into Turkish and, 71–72; works of, 48–49

Ramadan, Tariq, 28

Reflections of a Concerned Muslim on the Plight of Oppressed People, The (Shariati), 59

religion: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 110; political norms and, 25; political preferences and, 114–115, 118, 120, 123–124, 128; reform movements and, 23–24; role of in democratic state, 22–23

Renan, Ernest, 17

rizq (provision), 51

Robinson, James A., 43

Robinson, Robert V., 108, 123–124

Rode, Martin, 115–116

rule of law, 5, 25–26

rulers: ‘aqd (contract) with people and, 26; aspirations to justice, 30; benevolent dictators, 10, 37–38, 42–43, 112, 156; circle of justice concept and, 38; constraint of by religious norms, 10; Farabi on, 39–40; forbearance norms and maṣlaḥa, 10; goals of Islamic law and, 30–31; mirrors for princes and, 40; principle of rebellion against unjust, 36; Qutb on, 53; response to Arab Spring of, 38; social justice and just, 37, 83; social justice and obedience to, 9; succession crisis and obedience to, 110

Sachedina, Abdulaziz, 28

Saleh, Alaa, 129, 136

Saudi Arabia, 100

Schmitter, Philippe C., 22

science, 16, 58, 76, 124–126

sectarianism. See succession crisis

secularism, 22–24

secular state model, 22–24

servitude (kulluk), 98

sharia: benevolence and, 108; communitarian outlook and, 123–124; El Fadl’s treatment of, 26; independent body of legislation (qānūn) and, 32; Qutb’s justice theory and, 62; secular state model and, 23; WVS data and, 123–126

Shariati, ʿAli: avoidance of religious/secular dichotomy and, 47; benevolence and, 58, 62–63, 66, 109; Cain and Abel story and, 56, 61; charity and, 108; dialectical approach of, 55–56, 59, 77; ensan vs. bashar, 57, 60; four prisons and, 57–58, 66; golden age early prophetic community as model, 48, 58–61; grounding of political justice in doctrine and, 31, 37, 48; human agency/free will focus and, 12, 48, 57–58, 60; influence of Islamist thought, 63; influences of, 55; private property and, 61; social justice as praxis and, 48, 58–60; tawhid (unity) principle and, 48, 55–57, 59–60; translation into Turkish of, 72

Shia political theory, 7, 36, 81

Shia-Sunni schism. See succession crisis

shirk (polytheism), 55–56, 59, 61, 103

shūrā (consultation), 20–21, 26–27

social activism, 91–95, 101

socialism, 51, 55, 69

Social Justice in Islam (Abdelkader), 4

Social Justice in Islam (Qutb), 48–49

social justice paradigm, 39, 155

social justice trajectory: Arab Spring and, 140–141; during medieval period, 7, 32; forbearance norms and, 40; historical nature of focus of, 32; historical roots of, 37–41; implications for how rulers are viewed, 37–38; Islamist justice theory and, 48; Koran readership and, 145t, 146; modern prodemocracy movements and, 31; political preferences and, 11, 41, 43–44, 107–109, 152–153, 155–156; public interest and, 7–8, 8f; renewal of religion in contact with West, 32; social justice paradigm, 39; social order theme in justice discourse analysis, 83; support for democracy and, 107–109; theory of Ibn Taymiyya and, 39

social order, 68, 83–85, 87, 89

Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Moore), 131

Soviet Union, 85–86

Stark, Rodney, 124

succession crisis (of Muhammad), 5, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 110, 153–154

Sufi orders, 70, 72–73

Sunni political theory, 36, 81

Tabatabaʾi, Muhammad Husayn, 133

Tanzimat reforms, 39, 133

tawhid (unity principle), 20–21; connection to concept of justice and, 32; justice discourse analysis and, 82; justice state theory (Eliaçık) and, 84; Qutb’s Islamic justice theory and, 48–51, 54, 62, 84; Shariati’s Islamic justice theory and, 48, 55–57, 59–62, 84

Thompson, Elizabeth, 5, 132, 135

Tobacco Protest (1890–1891), 37, 133

Topçu, Nurettin, 71–72

Transparency International, 139

True Path Party, 73

Turkey: Committee on Union and Progress, 64; Democratic Party, 71; Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), 70; February 28 intervention (1997), 73; Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151; Kemalist project, 70; military coup of 1980, 72; Ottomanism, 71; shifts in rebellion-obedience dichotomies in Islamist movements, 37; sociopolitical evolution of Islamism in, 69–74; transition to democracy of, 71; Turkism, 71. See also Islamist journals; Turkish Islamism

Turkish Islamism: AKP (Justice and Development Party), 74, 85, 89–92, 151, 156; Anticapitalist Muslims, 91, 93–95; Association for Human Rights and Solidarity for the Oppressed (Mazlumder), 94–95; constitution of 1961! and, 71; defining, 75–76; degeneration of youth and, 72; emerging groups opposed to AKP and, 90, 93–95; global Islamism vs., 77; historical changes in, 69; Istanbul Think House, 95; journal publishing sources and, 78; Labor and Justice Platform, 91, 93–95; Muslimism vs., 90, 94; Muslims’ Initiative against the Violence toward Women, 94; myriad voices in, 74–75; nationalism and, 70–72; National Order Party, 89; Ottoman state and, 71; reemergence of in 1960s, 71; social activism and, 91–93; sociopolitical context of, 69–74; True Path Party, 73; Welfare Party, 73–74, 89. See also Islamism

Türköne, Mümtazer, 76

ʿUmar, Caliph, 30, 54–55, 59–60, 83

Umayyad Empire: ethicalist vs. realist vision of power and, 36; Islamist justice theory and, 60; jamā‘a model and, 36; justice discourses and, 69; Shariati and, 60–61

Umayyad family, 54, 59

United Arab Emirates, 38

Urabi, Ahmad, 135

Urabi Revolt (Egypt, 1879–1882), 5, 42, 131, 133, 135

ʿUthmān, 54–55, 60–61

Voll, John L., 21

Wahhabi scholars, 38

Wallerstein, Immanuel, 77

“way of life” (din), 47

Weber, Max, 17, 110

Weedon, C., 68

Welfare Party, 73–74, 89

welfare provision, 38, 43, 109, 155. See also benevolence; public interest

World Values Surveys (WVS): distributive preferences data and, 114–115, 117f; individualistic value orientation data and, 114–117, 123; religion vs. science data, 124–126; religiosity data and, 114–115, 124–126, 127t; self-determination data, 126, 127t, 128; self-direction data, 126, 127t, 128; sharia and, 123–126; statistical analysis and, 118, 119t, 120–121, 122t; support for democracy and, 13, 106, 114

Worldview of Tawhid (Shariati), 55

Yavuz, M. Hakan, 71

zakat, 52, 85, 108. See also charity

Ziblatt, Daniel, 10

zulüm/zulm (oppression), 81–82, 97–98, 104

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