Page numbers followed by the letter t refer to tables. Page numbers followed by the letter f refer to figures.
Abrahamian, Ervand, 55
Acemoglu, Daron, 43
Affendi, Abdelwahab El-, 36
Afghānī, Jamāl al-Dīn al-, 17, 31, 42
AKP (Justice and Development Party), 74, 89–92, 94–95, 151, 156
ʿAli, 34–35, 54–55, 59–61, 154
Al-Ṣadr, Muhammad Bāqir, 48, 63, 65
altruism, 8f, 9. See also benevolence; charity; zakat
Amaeshi, Kenneth, 15
American hegemony, 68, 74, 86–87
And Once Again Abu-Dhar (Shariati), 59
“And Seek Their Council in the Matter” (Kemal), 134
An-Náim, Abdullahi Ahmed, 3, 22–26, 28, 48, 102, 109
antiausterity movement, 105
Anticapitalist Muslims movement, 91, 93–95
anti-imperialism, 76, 85–87, 157
Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150
Arab Spring: Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150; authoritarianism and, 138; conception of justice and, 132, 135–141, 156–157, 158; constitutionalism and, 130–132; economic injustice and, 137–138, 140–141, 140f; as evidence for desire for democracy, 2; outcomes of, 135–136, 150, 159; as part of history of democratic revolt, 5, 13–14; Revolution of Smiles in Algeria, 129; rulers response to, 38; Saleh in Egypt, 129; in Tunisia, 130; “You Stink” movement in Lebanon, 129. See also individual movements; protest behaviors
Association for Human Rights and Solidarity for the Oppressed (Mazlumder), 94–95
autocratic regimes: Arab Spring and, 138; benevolent, 10, 37–38, 42–43; collectivist orientations and, 111f, 112–113; distributive preferences and, 111f, 112–113; exploitation of charity value of, 43; obedience value and, 44; political justice trajectory and, 42–43; political preferences revealed in interviews and, 99–104; WVS data on support for, 113–114
Ayoob, Mohammed, 77
Baqir al-Sadr, Muhammad, 12
benevolence: Islamist justice theories and, 46, 62, 66; Qutb and, 66, 109; Shariati on, 58, 62–63, 66, 109; support for democracy and, 108–109; tendency toward democratic preference and, 9; as underpinning of social justice trajectory, 7, 43. See also charity; public interest
Boix, Carles, 43
Bouazizi, Mohamed, 2, 130, 136
charity, 8f, 9, 43, 46, 52–53, 62, 108. See also benevolence; public interest
civil war (first, A.D. 657). See succession crisis
Cold War, 68, 70. See also communism
communism, 12, 50, 54–55, 72, 82, 85–87
Comte, Auguste, 16–17
constitutionalist movements: Arab Spring and, 130; encounters with West and, 130; ideas of Kemal and, 134–135; in Istanbul, 131; justice discourse and, 42, 132–136; in Ottoman Empire, 131–135; in Qajar Empire, 131; Urabi Revolt, 131, 133, 135
corruption, 93, 138–140, 139f, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148t, 150
counteressentialist scholarship, 11, 16–17, 20–21, 106, 134
Crone, Patricia, 34
democracy: Arab-majority country support for, 2, 138; association with the West and, 102; collectivism and, 111f, 112–113; counteressentialist theories and, 11, 16–17, 20–21, 106, 134; cultural compatibility theory and, 15–16; dignity (karama) and, 3; distributive processes and, 126, 127t; early modernist Islamic scholars and, 20; essentialist approach to, 2, 11, 16–20, 23, 106; El Fadl and, 25–28; forbearance norms and, 10, 26, 31; free will/predestination dichotomy and support for, 110–111; Islamic values orientation and support for, 26, 106–107; justice discourse analysis and, 88–90; path to in West, 131; political justice trajectory and support for, 107, 109–112, 111f; political preferences revealed in interviews and, 99–104; rebellion against tyranny theme and, 131; religion vs. science data and, 124–126; religiosity and, 120, 123–124, 126, 153, 158–159; role of enlightenment values in, 16–17; scholarship of paths to democracy in Muslim-majority countries, 22–25, 28; self-determinism and support for, 126, 127t, 128, 158; self-direction and, support for, 126, 127t, 128, 158; sharia and, 3, 126; source of government and, 25–27; WVS data on support for, 113–114, 118, 119t, 120–121, 122t
dignity (karama), 3
Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), 70
Durkheim, Émile, 17
economic distribution: Arab Spring and, 137–138; democracy and resolution of, 22; Industrial Revolution and, 6; Qutb’s social justice theory and, 50; social justice trajectory and, 43; support for democracy and, 108–109. See also benevolence; public interest; welfare provision
Edip, Halide, 135
egalitarian policies, 43, 108–109, 121
EliaçIk, İhsan, 73, 83–84, 90, 93–94, 105
Emek ve Adalet, 90
Ennahda movement, 150
equality of men, 50–51, 96, 99
equality of opportunity, 96
Esposito, John, 21
essentialist scholarship, 2, 11, 16–20, 23, 106
El Fadl, Khaled Abou, 3–4, 25–28
Fanon, Frantz, 55
Farabi, Abu Nasr al-, 39–40
Finke, Roger, 124
fitna. See succession crisis
forbearance norms, 10, 26, 31, 40
freedom of conscience, 48, 50–51, 62–63, 66
free will: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 109–110, 111f; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; Islamic justice theories and, 48, 62, 66; as philosophical underpinning of political justice, 8f, 35–36, 154; political preferences and, 9, 41, 107, 110–111; succession crisis and historical discourse around, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154; support for democracy and, 159; WVS and individualism data, 123
Gellner, Ernest, 17–18
Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151
Ghannūshī, Rāshid al-, 12, 48, 63–64, 102, 150
globalization, 12, 68, 74, 82–83
Gülen Community, 64
Hamdi, Elmalılı, 70
Hayreddin Pasha, 133
History of Social Justice and Political Power in the Middle East, A (Darling), 4–5
human agency, 48, 50–53, 57–58, 62, 152. See also free will
Ibn Taymiyya, 7, 39–40, 77, 83
“institutional forbearance”, 10. See also forbearance norms
interviews: association of democracy with the West and, 102; conceptions of justice revealed by, 96–99, 104; justice and Islam in, 98; methodology, 4, 6, 12–13, 95–99, 153; political preferences and justice conceptions in, 99–104; skepticism about systems of governance, 99–104; themes of, 95–96, 104; and WVS data, 123
In the Shade of the Quran (Qutb), 49
Iqbal, Muhammad, 20–21
Iranian Revolution, 7, 37, 72, 132
Islam: autocratic tendencies and values of, 3, 8f; democratic tendencies and values of, 2–3, 8f; essentialist approach to democracy and, 2; Gellner’s high and low, 18; Islamist justice theory’s approach to, 46–47; Kedourie’s enlightened absolutism theory, 18; Lewis’s historical approach, 19; native democratic theories and, 2; positivist philosophy and, 16–17; Shariati’s understanding of, 55; views on antithesis to progress and, 16–17
Islamic scholarship: essentialist, 2, 11, 16–20; El Fadl’s focus on justice, 25–27on paths to democracy in Muslim-majority countries, 22–25
Islamic scripture, 25–26, 39, 48. See also Muhammad
Islamism: anti-imperialism and, 76–77; defining, 75–78; as nonreactive, 76–77. See also Islamist journals; Islamist justice theories; Turkish Islamism
Islamist journals: American hegemony and, 12, 68, 74; book’s use of, 4, 6, 87; definitions of justice and, 67; discourse analysis method and, 12, 68–70; during Cold War, 12, 67; globalization and, 12, 68, 74; neoliberalism and, 12, 68, 85; political justice trajectory and, 11–12; social justice trajectory and, 11–12; Turkish Islamism’s use of, 73–74. See also justice discourse analysis
Islamist justice theories: An-Náim and, 48; comparisons of, 64–65; freedom of conscience and, 63; free will and, 46, 63; private property and, 61; schism of early prophetic community and, 60–61; social justice as praxis and, 48, 52–55, 63; tawhid and, 63. See also Qutb, Sayyid; Shariati, ʿAli
Islam, Secularism, and Liberal Democracy (Hashemi), 23
Istanbul Think House, 95
jawr (tyranny), 33
justice (al-‘adl): Abdelkader’s work and, 4; Arab Spring and conceptions of, 132, 135–141, 151; concept of divine justice, 33; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; counteressentialist scholarship and role of, 11, 20; El Fadl’s treatment of, 3–4, 25–27; and foundation of democratic ideal, 3; historical origins of conception of, 5, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154; interviews and themes of, 81–82, 95–99, 104; political justice dimension, 6–7, 8f; political preference and, 8f; primacy of shaping Muslim political attitudes, 3, 32, 152, 157; religious roots of, 5; role of in Islamic faith, 1; semantics of, 33; social activism and, 92; social justice dimension, 7–8, 8f; trajectories of, 6, 8f; Western development of concept of, 6. See also political justice trajectory; social justice trajectory
justice discourse analysis: advantages of with regard to Turkish Islamism, 69–70; American hegemony and, 68, 86–88; anti-imperialism in, 85–87, 157; communism and, 82, 85–87; democracy in, 88–90; equality and rights and, 82; globalization and, 82–83, 88; just government/just state theme in, 83–84, 87; methodology, 78, 79f, 80; myriad of voices in Turkish Islamism, 74–75; political reform theme in, 83–85; schematic of analysis, 80f; social order theme and, 63, 83–85, 87; sociopolitical context for Turkish Islamism, 69–74, 82, 88; sources of, 67–68; Turkish journals and sources for, 78, 79f, 80; zulüm/zulm (oppression) in, 81–82
Justice Interrupted (Thompson), 5
justice state theory (Eliaçık), 84
just testimony, 99
Karakoç, Sezai, 71–72
Karl, Terry Lynn, 22
Kedourie, Elie, 17–18
Kemal, Namık, 17, 31, 76, 134–135, 141
khalifa (men as God’s viceregent): al-Ṣadr and, 63; connection to concept of justice and, 32; democracy and, 20, 25, 159; Ghannūshī and, 63–64; Islamist justice theory and, 46–47, 54; Kemal’s ideas and, 134; political preferences, 42; succession crisis, 110; themes of in interviews, 99
Khanani, Ahmed, 3
Kısakürek, Necip Fazıl, 71–72, 77
Koçi Bey, 39
Labor and Justice Platform, 91, 93
law: in Cold War-era Turkey, 70; equality under, 96; Islamic jurisprudential theory, 8, 39; medieval, 43; pluralistic framework and, 3; Qutb and, 52, 54, 61; Shariati’s approach to, 61; social justice trajectory and, 40
Levitsky, Steven, 10
March, Andrew, 3
Marwani caliphs, 36
Mawdudi, Abu al-A’la, 31, 48, 63, 65, 72, 102
mazalim courts, 30
Menchik, Jeremy, 3
Meşrutiyet, 133
methodology: Arab Barometer surveys, 14, 131, 137–141, 143–148, 150, 153; interviews, 4, 6, 12–13, 95–99, 153; Islamist journal survey, 4, 6, 12, 153; public-opinion surveys, 4, 6, 12, 153; World Values Surveys (WVS), 13, 113–118, 119t, 120–121, 122t, 153
Milestones (Qutb), 48
Mongol invasion, 7, 38, 41, 69, 155
Moore, Barrington, Jr., 131
Muʿāwiya, 34, 54–55, 59–60, 154
Muhammad: benevolence and, 109; on equality of men, 51; on justice, 157; political struggle with al-Maʿmūn, 22; Shariati’s depiction of, 59; succession of, 6–7, 33–37, 60–61, 154; zakat and, 108
Murad IV (Sultan of Ottoman Empire), 39
Muslim Brothers (Egypt), 48
Muslims: development of justice conceptions for, 32–34; interpretations of Muslim values by, 2; obedience of the ruled and, 53; political preferences of devout, 101; skepticism of modernity from colonizing West, 20, 22; “way of life” (din) approach to, 47. See also interviews; protest behavior
Muslims’ Initiative against the Violence toward Women, 94
National Order Party, 89
neoliberalism, 12, 68, 73, 85–87
Nursi, Said, 12, 48, 63–65, 70, 84
On the Perfect State (Farabi), 39
Ottoman Empire, 39, 69, 76, 131–133
Ottomanism, 71
Pitlik, Hans, 115–116
political accountability, 25, 31, 41
political justice trajectory: Arab Spring and, 140–141; collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 109–110, 111f; early Islamic political struggle and, 107; ethicalist vs. realist vision of power and, 36; free will/predestination dichotomy, 110–111; historical nature of focus of, 32; historical roots of, 33–37, 107; Islamist justice theory and, 48; political preferences and, 11–12, 41–43, 107, 109–112, 111f, 152–153, 155–156; rebellion vs. obedience dichotomies and, 36–37
political struggle: circle of justice concept and, 5, 38; democracy and resolution of, 22; political Islamists of twentieth century and, 24; role of religion in, 22–24; succession of Muhammed and, 5–7, 9, 32, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154
popular sovereignty, 25, 35, 41–42, 64, 110
power relations, 96–97
predestination: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 110; contemporary Islamist movement activists and, 13; legitimization of authoritarianism and, 42; as philosophical underpinning of political justice, 8f, 154; political preferences and, 9, 41, 110–111; succession crisis and historical discourse around, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 153–154
protest behavior: antiausterity movement and, 105; Arab Spring and, 13–14, 31, 129–130; Batman protestor, 105; corruption and, 138–140, 139f, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148t, 150; distributive preferences, 146; economic pessimism and, 140, 144, 147f, 148f, 150; Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151; Kharijites, 31; Koran readership, 145t, 146; Ottoman constitutionalists and, 31; outcomes of, 135–136, 150, 159; political access and, 144, 145t, 147–148, 147f, 148f; political justice concerns and, 42, 141–142, 147, 150; political trust and, 138, 139f, 142, 144, 147f, 148f, 150; religiosity and, 31, 141–142, 144, 145t, 146–149, 147f, 148f, 149, 150–151, 153; social justice concerns and, 141–142, 144, 145t, 147, 147f, 150; support for democracy and, 105–106; unemployment and, 142, 144, 145t, 147t, 148f; Urabi Revolt, 131, 133, 135. See also Arab Spring
public interest (maṣlaḥa): circle of justice concept and, 38; as early manifestation of the social justice trajectory, 7–8, 37; forbearance norms and, 10, 31; goals of Islamic law and, 31; medieval era and, 43, 155; obedience to rulers and, 9; as philosophical underpinning of social justice, 8f; political preference and, 107; and support for authoritarian rule, 38; support for democracy and, 108. See also benevolence; charity
public-opinion surveys. See Arab Barometer surveys; World Values Surveys (WVS)
Qutb, Sayyid: avoidance of religious/secular dichotomy and, 47; benevolence and, 66, 109; charitable acts and, 12; criticism of Western societies and, 49; economic distribution and, 50, 53–54; focus of just political order, 12; golden age early prophetic community as model, 48, 54, 60; grounding of political justice in doctrine and, 31, 48; human agency and, 48, 50–52; influence of Islamist thought, 63; Muslim Brothers and, 48; private property and, 61; response to communist/capitalist systems of Cold War and, 49; social justice as praxis and, 48, 52–55; tawhid (unity) principle and social justice theory of, 48–50, 54; translation into Turkish and, 71–72; works of, 48–49
Ramadan, Tariq, 28
Reflections of a Concerned Muslim on the Plight of Oppressed People, The (Shariati), 59
religion: collectivist/individualistic cultural framework and, 110; political norms and, 25; political preferences and, 114–115, 118, 120, 123–124, 128; reform movements and, 23–24; role of in democratic state, 22–23
Renan, Ernest, 17
rizq (provision), 51
Robinson, James A., 43
Robinson, Robert V., 108, 123–124
Rode, Martin, 115–116
rulers: ‘aqd (contract) with people and, 26; aspirations to justice, 30; benevolent dictators, 10, 37–38, 42–43, 112, 156; circle of justice concept and, 38; constraint of by religious norms, 10; Farabi on, 39–40; forbearance norms and maṣlaḥa, 10; goals of Islamic law and, 30–31; mirrors for princes and, 40; principle of rebellion against unjust, 36; Qutb on, 53; response to Arab Spring of, 38; social justice and just, 37, 83; social justice and obedience to, 9; succession crisis and obedience to, 110
Sachedina, Abdulaziz, 28
Saudi Arabia, 100
Schmitter, Philippe C., 22
sectarianism. See succession crisis
secularism, 22–24
secular state model, 22–24
servitude (kulluk), 98
sharia: benevolence and, 108; communitarian outlook and, 123–124; El Fadl’s treatment of, 26; independent body of legislation (qānūn) and, 32; Qutb’s justice theory and, 62; secular state model and, 23; WVS data and, 123–126
Shariati, ʿAli: avoidance of religious/secular dichotomy and, 47; benevolence and, 58, 62–63, 66, 109; Cain and Abel story and, 56, 61; charity and, 108; dialectical approach of, 55–56, 59, 77; ensan vs. bashar, 57, 60; four prisons and, 57–58, 66; golden age early prophetic community as model, 48, 58–61; grounding of political justice in doctrine and, 31, 37, 48; human agency/free will focus and, 12, 48, 57–58, 60; influence of Islamist thought, 63; influences of, 55; private property and, 61; social justice as praxis and, 48, 58–60; tawhid (unity) principle and, 48, 55–57, 59–60; translation into Turkish of, 72
Shia political theory, 7, 36, 81
Shia-Sunni schism. See succession crisis
shirk (polytheism), 55–56, 59, 61, 103
shūrā (consultation), 20–21, 26–27
Social Justice in Islam (Abdelkader), 4
Social Justice in Islam (Qutb), 48–49
social justice paradigm, 39, 155
social justice trajectory: Arab Spring and, 140–141; during medieval period, 7, 32; forbearance norms and, 40; historical nature of focus of, 32; historical roots of, 37–41; implications for how rulers are viewed, 37–38; Islamist justice theory and, 48; Koran readership and, 145t, 146; modern prodemocracy movements and, 31; political preferences and, 11, 41, 43–44, 107–109, 152–153, 155–156; public interest and, 7–8, 8f; renewal of religion in contact with West, 32; social justice paradigm, 39; social order theme in justice discourse analysis, 83; support for democracy and, 107–109; theory of Ibn Taymiyya and, 39
social order, 68, 83–85, 87, 89
Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Moore), 131
Soviet Union, 85–86
Stark, Rodney, 124
succession crisis (of Muhammad), 5, 9, 33–37, 48, 54, 58–61, 60, 69, 110, 153–154
Sunni political theory, 36, 81
Tabatabaʾi, Muhammad Husayn, 133
tawhid (unity principle), 20–21; connection to concept of justice and, 32; justice discourse analysis and, 82; justice state theory (Eliaçık) and, 84; Qutb’s Islamic justice theory and, 48–51, 54, 62, 84; Shariati’s Islamic justice theory and, 48, 55–57, 59–62, 84
Thompson, Elizabeth, 5, 132, 135
Tobacco Protest (1890–1891), 37, 133
Topçu, Nurettin, 71–72
Transparency International, 139
True Path Party, 73
Turkey: Committee on Union and Progress, 64; Democratic Party, 71; Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet), 70; February 28 intervention (1997), 73; Gezi Park protests (2013), 66, 90, 93–94, 105, 151; Kemalist project, 70; military coup of 1980, 72; Ottomanism, 71; shifts in rebellion-obedience dichotomies in Islamist movements, 37; sociopolitical evolution of Islamism in, 69–74; transition to democracy of, 71; Turkism, 71. See also Islamist journals; Turkish Islamism
Turkish Islamism: AKP (Justice and Development Party), 74, 85, 89–92, 151, 156; Anticapitalist Muslims, 91, 93–95; Association for Human Rights and Solidarity for the Oppressed (Mazlumder), 94–95; constitution of 1961! and, 71; defining, 75–76; degeneration of youth and, 72; emerging groups opposed to AKP and, 90, 93–95; global Islamism vs., 77; historical changes in, 69; Istanbul Think House, 95; journal publishing sources and, 78; Labor and Justice Platform, 91, 93–95; Muslimism vs., 90, 94; Muslims’ Initiative against the Violence toward Women, 94; myriad voices in, 74–75; nationalism and, 70–72; National Order Party, 89; Ottoman state and, 71; reemergence of in 1960s, 71; social activism and, 91–93; sociopolitical context of, 69–74; True Path Party, 73; Welfare Party, 73–74, 89. See also Islamism
Türköne, Mümtazer, 76
ʿUmar, Caliph, 30, 54–55, 59–60, 83
Umayyad Empire: ethicalist vs. realist vision of power and, 36; Islamist justice theory and, 60; jamā‘a model and, 36; justice discourses and, 69; Shariati and, 60–61
United Arab Emirates, 38
Urabi, Ahmad, 135
Urabi Revolt (Egypt, 1879–1882), 5, 42, 131, 133, 135
Voll, John L., 21
Wahhabi scholars, 38
Wallerstein, Immanuel, 77
“way of life” (din), 47
Weedon, C., 68
welfare provision, 38, 43, 109, 155. See also benevolence; public interest
World Values Surveys (WVS): distributive preferences data and, 114–115, 117f; individualistic value orientation data and, 114–117, 123; religion vs. science data, 124–126; religiosity data and, 114–115, 124–126, 127t; self-determination data, 126, 127t, 128; self-direction data, 126, 127t, 128; sharia and, 123–126; statistical analysis and, 118, 119t, 120–121, 122t; support for democracy and, 13, 106, 114
Worldview of Tawhid (Shariati), 55
Yavuz, M. Hakan, 71
zakat, 52, 85, 108. See also charity
Ziblatt, Daniel, 10