Notes

INTRODUCTION

1.Lawrence E. Davies, “Japanese Premier Hailed on Arrival,” New York Times, September 3, 1951, 3. See also Philip Potter, “Yoshida Sees Pact Success on Schedule,” Baltimore Sun, September 3, 1951, 1; Chesly Manly, “Yoshida Picks Vital Date to Reach Parley,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 3, 1951, 6.

2.“Yoshida Credits Nisei Troops with Change of U.S. Attitude,” Rafu Shimpo, September 6, 1951, 1.

3.John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 34–36, 78–93; Frank Ninkovich, “History and Memory in Postwar U.S.-Japanese Relations,” in The Unpredictability of the Past: Memories of the Asia-Pacific War in U.S.–East Asian Relations, ed. Marc Gallicchio (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007), 91–92.

4.A sampling of scholarship on the wartime confinement of Japanese Americans includes Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps USA: Japanese Americans and World War II (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972); Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps, updated ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996); Tetsuden Kashima, Judgment without Trial: Japanese American Imprisonment during World War II (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003); Brian Masaru Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy: The Japanese American Internment (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004); Greg Robinson, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009). Other works address Japanese American literature, art, photography, and oral histories from the period. Some of this scholarship includes Deborah Gesensway and Mindy Roseman, Beyond Words: Images from America’s Concentration Camps (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987); Lawson Fusao Inada, ed., Only What They Could Carry: The Japanese American Internment Experience (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2000); Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro, eds., Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of Japanese American Internment (New York: Norton, 2006).

5.Davies, “Japanese Premier Hailed on Arrival,” 3.

6.T. Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 206–236; Scott Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008), 186–204.

7.Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014); Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2013); Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2015). See also Thy Phu, Picturing Model Citizens: Civility in Asian American Visual Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011).

8.John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: Norton, 1999); Yukiko Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Naoko Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006); Bruce Cumings, Parallax Visions: Making Sense of American–East Asian Relations at the End of the Century (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1999), 212.

9.Pearl S. Buck, My Several Worlds: A Personal Record (New York: John Day, 1954), 406–407; James A. Michener, The Voice of Asia (New York: Random House, 1951), 327. When describing the United States as a postwar empire, Michael S. Sherry summed it up best when writing: “In . . . the riches generated for the imperial center, in the universalist claims for American ideals, in the racial or gendered language used to describe nonwhite peoples, in the resentments it aroused, and above all in the reach of its military power, the United States after World War II achieved much of the reality and many of the trappings of empire. Precisely how much seems a matter only for quibbling.” Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995), 126. Paul A. Kramer similarly notes about U.S. power in the world, and about empires more generally, that “the imperial refers to a dimension of power in which asymmetries in the scale of political action, regimes of spatial ordering, and modes of exceptionalizing difference enable and produce relations of hierarchy, discipline, dispossession, extraction, and exploitation.” Kramer, “Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World,” American Historical Review 116 (December 2011): 1349. For a broad view of U.S. imperialism throughout the twentieth century, see Michael H. Hunt and Steven I. Levine, Arc of Empire: America’s Wars in Asia from the Philippines to Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012).

10.Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000). See also Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Robert Vitalis, White World Order, Black Power Politics: The Birth of American International Relations (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2015); Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004); Laura A. Belmonte, Selling the American Way: U.S. Propaganda and the Cold War (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010).

11.Dower, War without Mercy, 293–318; Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally.

12.“Second Chance in Asia,” Commonweal, June 29, 1951, 277; “Japan: A ‘Greater Asia’ Deal with the Reds?,” Newsweek, February 15, 1951, 38; Edwin O. Reischauer, “To Make Japan an Asset to Democracy,” New York Times Magazine, August 26, 1956, 23.

13.Dower, Embracing Defeat, 87–200, 271–227; Douglas H. Mendel, Jr., “Japan Reviews Her American Alliance,” Public Opinion Quarterly 30, no. 1 (Spring 1966): 7. See also Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Akira Iriye and Warren I. Cohen, eds., The United States and Japan in the Postwar World (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1989). A useful evaluation of scholarship on the occupation is Laura Hein, “Revisiting America’s Occupation of Japan,” Cold War History 11, no. 4 (November 2011): 579–599.

14.Caroline Chung Simpson, An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945–1960 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001). Simpson draws from Marita Sturken, “Absent Images of Memory: Remembering and Reenacting the Japanese Internment,” positions 5 (1997): 687–707.

15.Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race, 195–198; Greg Robinson, After Camp: Portraits in Midcentury Japanese American Life and Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Brian Komei Dempster, ed., Making Home from War: Stories of Japanese American Exile and Resettlement (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2011).

16.Peter Ota, quoted in Studs Terkel, “The Good War:” An Oral History of World War II (New York: New Press, 1984), 32; Yoshita Wayne Osaki, quoted in Dempster, Making Home from War, 111. See also Tetsuden Kashima, “Japanese American Internees Return, 1945–1955: Readjustment and Social Amnesia,” Phylon 42, no. 2 (Summer 1980): 107–115.

17.For works on Asian American activism in the 1960s and 1970s, refer to Daryl J. Maeda, Chains of Babylon: The Rise of Asian America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); Maeda, Rethinking the Asian American Movement (New York: Routledge, 2011); Steven G. Louie and Glenn K. Omatsu, eds., Asian Americans: The Movement and the Moment (Los Angeles: UCLA Asian American Studies Center Press, 2001); William Wei, The Asian American Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993); Diane C. Fujino, Heartbeat of Struggle: The Revolutionary Life of Yuri Kochiyama (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005). See also Judy Tzu-Chun Wu, Radicals on the Road: Internationalism, Orientalism, and Feminism during the Vietnam Era (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2013).

18.Recent studies have examined Asian American literature and its critique of the Cold War in intriguing ways, but have focused mainly on works from the 1980s and 1990s to assess the legacies of military involvement in Asia. See Jodi Kim, Ends of Empire: Asian American Critique and the Cold War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Josephine Nock-Hee Park, Cold War Friendships: Korea, Vietnam, and Asian American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016). An interesting work that examines Japanese culture during the Cold War is Ann Sherif, Japan’s Cold War: Media, Law, and Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009).

19.David Palumbo-Liu, Asian/American: Historical Crossings of a Racial Frontier (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 1.

20.I refer to “Japanese/American” to describe a theoretical process, distinguishing it from my use of “Japanese American” to denote the ethnic group. I realize each category is a construction that overlaps with the other as far as histories and political intentions, but I make this distinction to avoid confusion.

21.Alan Nadel, Containment Culture: American Narratives, Postmodernism, and the Atomic Age (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995), 4.

22.Sample titles include Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era, updated ed. (New York: Basic, 2008); K.A. Cuordileone, Manhood and American Political Culture in the Cold War (New York: Routledge, 2004); David K. Johnson, The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Tyler T. Schmidt, Desegregating Desire: Race and Sexuality in Cold War American Literature (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2013); Shelton Stromquist, ed., Labor’s Cold War: Local Politics in a Global Context (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008); Colleen Doody, Detroit’s Cold War: The Origins of Postwar Conservatism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012); William Inboden III, Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Dianne Kirby, ed., Religion and the Cold War (New York: Palgrave, 2013); Kari Frederickson, Cold War Dixie: Militarization and Modernization in the American South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2013); Kevin J. Fernlund, ed., The Cold War American West (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998).

23.Andrea Friedman, Citizenship in Cold War America: The National Security State and the Possibilities of Dissent (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2014); Andrew J. Falk, Upstaging the Cold War: American Dissent and Cultural Diplomacy, 1940–1960 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010); Thomas Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003); Rebecca Schreiber, Cold War Exiles in Mexico: U.S. Dissidents and the Culture of Critical Resistance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008).

24.Scholars (especially historians) have lately focused on cosmopolitan figures and institutions that challenged hardline Cold War sentiments. See Nicole Sackley, “Cosmopolitanism and the Uses of Tradition: Robert Redfield and Alternative Visions of Modernization during the Cold War,” Modern Intellectual History 9, no. 3 (November 2012): 565–595; Julia Horne, “The Cosmopolitan Life of Alice Erh-Soon Tay,” Journal of World History 21, no. 3 (September 2010): 419–445; Glenda Sluga, “UNESCO and the (One) World of Julian Huxley,” Journal of World History 21, no. 3 (September 2010): 393–418; Antoinette Burton, “Cold War Cosmopolitanism: The Education of Santha Rama Rau in the Age of Bandung, 1945–1954,” Radical History Review 95 (Spring 2006): 149–172; Michael R. Auslin, Pacific Cosmopolitans: A Cultural History of U.S.-Japan Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011), 169–217.

25.Lisa Lowe traces this global development since the eighteenth century, when liberalism emerged as a powerful ideology, one that also encouraged racism, imperialism, and exploitation. See Lowe, The Intimacies of Four Continents (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2015).

26.As the following chapters show, the four artists and writers did not adhere to one specific definition of, or approach to, their interactions with the world. Some works that trace the multiplicity of these relations and classifications include Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, eds., Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999); Sheldon Pollock, Homi K. Bhabha, Carol A. Breckenridge, and Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Cosmopolitanisms,” Public Culture 12, no. 3 (Fall 2000): 577–589; Glenda Sluga and Julia Horne, “Cosmopolitanism: Its Pasts and Practices,” Journal of World History 21, no. 3 (September 2010): 369–373; Cyrus R. K. Patell, Emergent U.S. Literatures: From Multiculturalism to Cosmopolitanism in the Late Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2014); Bruce Robbins and Paulo Lemos Horta, eds., Cosmopolitanisms (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

27.Fujitani, Race for Empire, 206–236; Kurashige, The Shifting Grounds of Race, 186–204.

28.Wu, The Color of Success; Cheng, Citizens of Asian America; Hsu, The Good Immigrants.

29.Klein, Cold War Orientalism; Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally.

30.Viet Nguyen, Race and Resistance: Literature and Politics in Asian America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 4–7. See also Jinqi Ling, Narrating Nationalisms: Ideology and Form in Asian American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).

31.Sample works that place Japanese Americans within a broader transpacific context include Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Rumi Yasutake, Transnational Women’s Activism: The United States, Japan, and Japanese Immigrant Communities in California, 1859–1920 (New York: New York University Press, 2004); T. T. Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, and Lisa Yoneyama, eds., Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001); Michael Jin, “Beyond Two Homelands: Migration and Transnationalism of Japanese Americans in the Pacific, 1930–1955” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2013); Christine Yano, Airborne Dreams: “Nisei” Stewardesses and Pan American World Airways (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2011).

CHAPTER 1

1.John A. Rademaker, These Are Americans: The Japanese Americans in Hawaii in World War II (Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific Books, 1951), 29–35; “Okinawa: Levittown-on-the-Pacific,” Time, August 15, 1955, 20.

2.Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014), 222–223.

3.“The Nisei in the Occupation,” Pacific Citizen, May 31, 1952, 4; Mike Masaoka, “Nisei—and New Japan,” Pacific Citizen, December 31, 1954, 2. See also Kelli Y. Nakamura, “‘They Are Our Human Secret Weapons’: The Military Intelligence Service and the Role of Japanese-Americans in the Pacific War and in the Occupation of Japan,” The Historian 70 (Spring 2008): 54–74.

4.Edward Tang, “Reorienting Empires: Hanama Tasaki’s Long the Imperial Way and Postwar American Culture,” Journal of Asian American Studies 17, no. 1 (February 2014): 31–59.

5.John J. Stephan, Hawaii under the Rising Sun: Japan’s Plans for Conquest after Pearl Harbor (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984), 36; John Shy, “Hanama Tasaki and His Contemporaries” (unpublished manuscript), 2; “MCC Takes in 16 Members: Neophytes in Citizenship Club Are Active Students,” Nippon Jiji, October 11, 1930, 1.

6.Takashi Oka, “Two Novels That Tell about People,” Christian Science Monitor, August 12, 1950, WM7. The author thanks Greg Robinson for the information on Tasaki’s English translation of the Imperial Rescript.

7.Ray Falk, “The Machine Was Cruel,” New York Times, August 13, 1950, BR3; Harvey Breit, “Talk with Mr. Tasaki,” New York Times, August 20, 1950, 176; Merle Miller, “‘All Quiet’ of the Eastern Front,” Saturday Review, August 12, 1950, 8.

8.“A List of 275 Outstanding Books of the Year,” New York Times, December 3, 1950, BR32; “Ten Books of the Year—As Chosen by Tribune Reviewers,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 3, 1950, F4; Edmund Fuller, “War, as Seen thru Eyes of Jap Private,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 20, 1950, H5; Miller, “‘All Quiet’ of the Eastern Front,” 9; Harold Strauss, “A Japanese Conscript,” The Nation, August 19, 1950, 171.

9.A. LaVonne Brown Ruoff and Jerry W. Ward Jr., eds., Redefining American Literary History (New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1990), 361; Amy Ling, “Whose America Is It?” Weber Studies 12, no. 1 (1995): 27–35; Stephen Hong Sohn, Paul Lai, and Donald C. Goellnicht, “Introduction: Theorizing Asian American Fiction,” Modern Fiction Studies 56 (Spring 2010): 6.

10.On transnational approaches to Asian American literature, see Sau-ling C. Wong, “Denationalization Reconsidered: Asian American Cultural Criticism at a Theoretical Crossroads,” Amerasia Journal 21 (1995): 1–27; Pin-chia Feng, “Re-Mapping Asian American Literature: The Case of Fu Sang,” American Studies International 38 (February 2000): 61–71; Wen Jin, “Transnational Criticism and Asian Immigrant Literature in the U.S.: Reading Yan Geling’s Fusang and Its English Translation,” Contemporary Literature 47 (Winter 2006): 570–600; Shelley Fisher Fishkin, “Asian Crossroads/Transnational American Studies,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 17 (2006): 5–52; Richard Jean So, “Collaboration and Translation: Lin Yutang and the Archive of Asian American Literature,” Modern Fiction Studies 56 (Spring 2010): 40–62.

11.Stephen Hong Sohn discusses the variances among Asian American authors and the subject matter in their work, which may not conform to their specific ethnic backgrounds or perspectives. He traces this development in contemporary fiction published in the “postrace era” (or, after 2000). I would argue that this phenomenon appears much earlier, albeit in different forms, contexts, and purposes. Tasaki’s novels, for instance, do not address Asian American themes, characters, or concerns. See Stephen Hong Sohn, Racial Asymmetries: Asian American Fictional Worlds (New York: New York University Press, 2014).

12.The scholarly neglect of Long the Imperial Way extends to cultural historians and literary critics who have examined the collective memories of wars between the United States and East Asia, as well as conflicts among Asian nations. These works include T. T. Fujitani, Geoffrey M. White, and Lisa Yoneyama, eds., Perilous Memories: The Asia-Pacific War(s) (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001); Marlene J. Mayo, J. Thomas Rimer, and H. Eleanor Kerham, eds., War, Occupation, and Creativity: Japan and East Asia, 1920–1960 (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001); Marc Gallicchio, ed., The Unpredictability of the Past: Memories of the Asia-Pacific War in U.S.–East Asian Relations (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007); Sharalyn Orbaugh, Japanese Fiction of the Allied Occupation: Vision, Embodiment, Identity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007); Michael S. Molasky, The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory (New York: Routledge, 1999).

13.Susan Koshy, “Minority Cosmopolitanism,” PMLA 126 (May 2011): 593.

14.Ibid., 594. See also David Palumbo-Liu, Asian/American: Historical Crossings of a Racial Frontier (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999); Mae M. Ngai, “Asian American History—Reflections on the De-centering of the Field,” Journal of American Ethnic History 25 (Summer 2006): 97–108.

15.Breit, “Talk with Mr. Tasaki,” 176.

16.Hanama Tasaki, Long the Imperial Way (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), dust jacket. Page citations from this edition appear parenthetically in this essay.

17.A useful interpretive survey on imperialism in U.S. and world history is Paul A. Kramer’s “Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World,” American Historical Review 116 (December 2011): 1348–1391.

18.The author thanks Eiichiro Azuma for suggesting this concept’s application to Hanama Tasaki and his novel.

19.Stephan, Hawaii under the Rising Sun, 23–54; John J. Stephan, “Hijacked by Utopia: American Nikkei in Manchuria,” Amerasia Journal 23 (Winter 1997–1998): 1–42; Michael Jin, “Beyond Two Homelands: Migration and Transnationalism of Japanese Americans in the Pacific, 1930–1955,” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Cruz, 2013), 19–70.

20.Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), 170–174. See also Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 111–186; Jin, “Beyond Two Homelands,” 19–110.

21.Masayo Umezawa Duus, Unlikely Liberators: The Men of the 100th and 442nd (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1987); Robert Asahina, Just Americans: How Japanese Americans Won a War at Home and Abroad (New York: Gotham, 2006); Alice Yang Murray, Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment and the Struggle for Redress (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008), 99–116, 368–369; Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, foreword by Tetsuden Kashima (Washington, D.C.: Civil Liberties Public Education Fund; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 258.

22.Monica Sone, Nisei Daughter (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1979), 201.

23.Greg Robinson, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 109–113; Yang Murray, Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment, 426–429.

24.“442nd Reunion” Pacific Citizen, June 5, 1953, 2.

25.Wu, Color of Success, 72–110.

26.Albert Q. Maisel, “The Japanese among Us,” Reader’s Digest, January 1956, 192.

27.Bradford Smith, “Test of American Democracy,” Saturday Review of Literature, June 7, 1947, 20, 21.

28.Christopher Rand, “A Reporter at Large,” New Yorker, November 16, 1957, 135.

29.For discussions on Go for Broke! as a postwar artifact, see T. Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 206–234; Edward Tang, “From Internment to Containment: Cold War Imaginings of Japanese Americans in Go for Broke,” Columbia Journal of American Studies 9 (Fall 2009): 84–112.

30.Dore Schary, undated note, Box 39, Folder 10, Dore Schary Papers, Wisconsin Historical Society/Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research.

31.Larry Tajiri, “Vagaries: Meets Dore Schary for the First Time,” Pacific Citizen, July 29, 1955, 1.

32.Dore Schary to Joseph Yorvin, July 13, 1951; William Gordon to Dore Schary, May 14, 1951, Box 39, Folder 8, Dore Schary Papers, Wisconsin Historical Society/Wisconsin Center for Film and Theater Research.

33.“Yoshida Credits Nisei Troops with Change of U.S. Attitude,” Rafu Shimpo, September 6, 1951, 1. See also “Premier Yoshida Hails Role of Nisei during Last War; Notes Changes in Attitude,” Pacific Citizen, September 8, 1951, 1; “Yoshida Hails Ex-Foes: Japanese Premier Pays Visit to Cemetery in Hawaii,” New York Times, September 2, 1951, 6.

34.“Japanese Fete Nisei Veterans at Tokyo Party,” Pacific Citizen, April 22, 1950, 1; “Japan Official Hails Loyalty of Nisei to U.S.,” Pacific Citizen, October 6, 1951, 2.

35.“The Nisei in the Occupation,” Pacific Citizen, May 31, 1952, 4.

36.The occupation of Japan also revealed the challenges in assuming that Nisei servicemen would be fitting cultural brokers between the two countries. Difficulties arose when they tried to negotiate their standing as disparaged racial minorities in the United States and as American military personnel in Japan. The former called for the Nisei to sympathize with Japanese nationals because of their shared racial features and ancestry. On the other hand, more than a few Nisei soldiers exercised their power and status as U.S. citizens over the subordinated in Japan in oppressive ways, reinforcing American imperial might. See Eiichiro Azuma, “Brokering Race, Culture, and Citizenship: Japanese Americans in Occupied Japan and Postwar National Inclusion,” Journal of American–East Asian Relations 16, no. 3 (Fall 2009): 183–211; Azuma, “The Lure of Military Imperialism: Race, Martial Citizenship, and Minority American Transnationalism during the Cold War,” Journal of American Ethnic History 36, no. 2 (Winter 2017): 72–82. See also Susan L. Carruthers, The Good Occupation: American Soldiers and the Hazards of Peace (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016).

37.John J. Stephan, e-mail communication with the author, June 24, 2013.

38.Stephan, Hawaii under the Rising Sun, 36. See also Gary Okihiro, Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii, 1865–1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991); Franklin Odo, No Sword to Bury: Japanese Americans in Hawai‘i during World War II (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004).

39.Stephan, e-mail communication.

40.Shy, “Hanama Tasaki and His Contemporaries,” 3–4, 26; Stephan, Hawaii under the Rising Sun, 43. Although Tasaki worked as a correspondent before becoming a novelist, the level of his Japanese-language skills in reading and writing are unknown. He did seek help in translating Long the Imperial Way for a Japanese edition. This version, however, did not receive much critical or commercial notice.

41.Fuller, “War, as Seen thru Eyes of Jap Private,” H5.

42.Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 10–11.

43.Greg Robinson, After Camp: Portraits in Midcentury Japanese American Life and Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 85–101.

44.Larry Tajiri, “The Nisei and the Novel,” Pacific Citizen, August 2, 1952, 4.

45.Naoko Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006), 163–166.

46.Bill Hosokawa, “‘Long the Imperial Way’: The Story of a Nippon Soldier,” Pacific Citizen, August 26, 1950, 5.

47.Azuma, Between Two Empires, 181–182, 211, 213; Ngai, Impossible Subjects, 173.

48.See, for example, Weldon James, “Main Street Moves to Japan,” Collier’s, June 14, 1947, 16–17+; “Who Picks the ‘Democracy’ for Japan?” Saturday Evening Post, April 10, 1948, 156; Edwin O. Reischauer, “It’s Time We Encouraged the Japanese to Build a Democracy of Their Own,” Saturday Evening Post, April 23, 1949, 12; Helen Mears, “Japan: Challenge to Our Prestige,” Harper’s, July 1950, 73–78; Eric Johnston, “Japan: Partner or Problem?” Look, April 5, 1955, 104; “Self-Government on Trial in Japan,” Life, November 28, 1960, 118–126.

49.“Japan, Reborn, Can Be Our Ally,” Collier’s, May 7, 1949, 82; Deputy Under Secretary [Robert Daniel] Murphy, “America, Japan, and the Future of the Pacific,” Department of State Bulletin, March 22, 1954, 431.

50.Peter Kalischer, “Japan,” Collier’s, March 2, 1956, 58. See also Demaree Bess, “The Japs Have Us on the Griddle Now,” Saturday Evening Post, April 4, 1953, 24–25, 68, 70–71.

51.Kalischer, “Japan,” 59.

52.John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: Norton, 1999), 33–64; Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally, 133–135. Dower discusses American and Japanese racial depictions of each other during World War II in War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986). Sandra Wilson, however, notes that later in the 1950s, Japanese veterans became less reviled in the minds of the populace. Instead, former soldiers involved themselves in politics and became cultural heroes, contesting the nation’s sense of pacifism and war guilt. See Wilson, “War, Soldier and Nation in 1950s Japan,” International Journal of Asian Studies 5 (2008): 187–218.

53.“Japanese Farmer,” Life, December 24, 1945, 67, 70.

54.Darrell Berrigan, “Japan’s Hope and Despair: Her Veterans,” Saturday Evening Post, August 9, 1947, 24.

55.James A. Michener, The Voice of Asia (New York: Random House, 1951), 23, 26.

56.Ibid., 27.

57.Ibid., 28.

58.Michener concluded his collection of essays with this thought about U.S. intentions in Asia: “America has an honorable place in Asia, not as the new imperialist . . . but as a co-operating friend working on problems of mutual concern and no doubt mutual profit.” Yet the Japanese veteran Masao Watanabe prodded Michener to consider how U.S. involvement in Korea might be based on intentions similar to those of imperial Japan; it was all the same to Watanabe. This opinion Michener considered as too absurd, even as it made him uncomfortable about U.S.-Japan relations. Michener, The Voice of Asia, 327.

59.Dower, Embracing Defeat, 204–213. Scholarship on the U.S. occupation of Japan is voluminous. For a recent assessment, see Laura Hein, “Revisiting America’s Occupation of Japan,” Cold War History 11 (November 2011): 579–599. Additional key works include Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Yukiko Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); John Swenson-Wright, Unequal Allies? United States Security and Alliance Policy toward Japan, 1945–1960 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005); Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally.

60.Stewart Alsop, “Matter of Fact: American Japan,” Washington Post, April 25, 1949, 6; Helen Mears, “The Russians are Making the Most of Our ‘Imperialist Rule’ in Japan,” Saturday Evening Post, April 29, 1950, 12.

61.Demaree Bess, “Those American Towns in Japan,” Saturday Evening Post, August 23, 1952, 96; Robert Sherrod, “How Can Japan Survive?” Saturday Evening Post, October 9, 1954, 33.

62.Stephen H. Sumida, And the View from the Shore: Literary Traditions of Hawai‘i (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991); Christine Skwiot, The Purposes of Paradise: U.S. Tourism and Empire in Cuba and Hawai‘i (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010).

63.Work problematizing Japanese American wartime and postwar loyalties within a transpacific context includes Yuji Ichioka, “The Meaning of Loyalty: The Case of Kazumaro Buddy Uno,” Amerasia Journal 23 (Winter 1997–1998): 44–71; Naoko Shibusawa, “‘The Artist Belongs to the People’: The Odyssey of Taro Yashima,” Journal of Asian American Studies 8 (October 2005): 257–275; Jin, “Beyond Two Homelands,” 211–269.

64.Gary Y. Okihiro, Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii, 1865–1945 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991), 98–105, 118–128, 225–252. See also Beth Bailey and David Farber, The First Strange Place: The Alchemy of Race and Sex in World War II Hawaii (New York: Free Press, 1992).

65.Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Penny M. Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004).

66.“Hawaii—A Bridge to Asia,” Business Week, May 13, 1950, 128; “The 49th State,” Collier’s, April 8, 1950, 74; “Statehood Blocked by Racial Issues,” Christian Century, November 29, 1950, 1413.

67.Gretchen Heefner, “‘A Symbol of the New Frontier’: Hawaiian Statehood, Anti-colonialism, and Winning the Cold War,” Pacific Historical Review 74 (November 2005): 562. See also John Whitehead, “Alaska and Hawai‘i: The Cold War States,” in The Cold War American West, 1945–1989, ed. Kevin J. Fernlund (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998), 189–210.

68.Rademaker, These Are Americans, 1.

69.Other postwar histories of Japanese Americans in Hawai‘i offered a similar take on the model minority narrative. See Andrew W. Lind, Hawaii’s Japanese: An Experiment in Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1946).

70.Shelley Ayame Nishimura Ota, Upon Their Shoulders (New York: Exposition Press, 1951), 253; Kazuo Miyamoto, Hawaii: End of the Rainbow (Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle, 1964), 396–397.

71.Miller, “‘All Quiet” of the Eastern Front,” 8. The novel’s dust jacket carries this same quote.

72.Dower, Embracing Defeat, 30.

73.Breit, “Talk with Mr. Tasaki,” 176; Miller, “‘All Quiet” of the Eastern Front,” 8; Falk, “The Machine Was Cruel,” BR3.

74.Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 79–81; Robert Frazier, “Kennan, ‘Universalism,’ and the Truman Doctrine,” Journal of Cold War Studies 11 (Spring 2009): 3–34. See also David C. Engerman, Nils Gilman, Mark H. Haefele, and Michael E. Latham, eds., Staging Growth: Modernization, Development, and the Global Cold War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003); Nils Gilman, Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003).

75.Breit, “Talk with Mr. Tasaki,” 176.

76.Ibid.

77.On the invisibility of American empire, see Michael Sherry, In the Shadow of War: The United States since the 1930s (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Michael H. Hunt and Steven I. Levine, Arc of Empire: America’s Wars in Asia from the Philippines to Vietnam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Kramer, “Power and Connection,” 1358–1359.

78.Breit, “Talk with Mr. Tasaki,” 176.

79.Monroe Engel, “The Enemies,” Commentary, September 1950, 299.

80.Miller, “‘All Quiet’ of the Eastern Front,” 8.

81.Strauss, “A Japanese Conscript,” 171; Falk, “The Machine Was Cruel,” BR3; Edith Weigle, “An Intense, Moving Novel of Japan Today,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 3, 1952, B3.

82.Yoshikuni Igarashi, Bodies of Memory: Narratives of War in Postwar Japanese Culture, 1945–1970 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 13.

83.Orville Prescott, “Books of the Times,” New York Times, August 14, 1950, 27; Oka, “Two Novels That Tell about People,” WM7; Lee Grove, “Life (or Less) in the Jap Army,” Washington Post, August 20, 1950, B6.

84.Prescott, “Books of the Times,” 27.

85.Grove, “Life (or Less) in the Jap Army,” B6.

86.Hanama Tasaki, The Mountains Remain (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1952), 173, 314–315.

87.Tamura Taijiro, quoted in Douglas N. Slaymaker, The Body in Postwar Japanese Fiction (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2004), 3.

88.Slaymaker, The Body in Postwar Japanese Fiction, 4–5; Igarashi, Bodies of Memory, 55–61. Slaymaker notes that the flesh writers were all male, and in their postwar sexual anxieties exacerbated by the U.S. occupation, they supported returning to a prewar domination of women. This perspective relocated the despised imperial state’s activities of exploring, conquering, and regulating onto Japanese female bodies.

89.David C. Stahl, The Burdens of Survival: Ooka Shohei’s Writings on the Pacific War (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003), 8.

90.Oka, “Two Novels That Tell about People,” WM7; Prescott, “Books of the Times,” 27.

91.Orville Prescott, “Books of the Times,” New York Times, May 7, 1948, 21.

92.Dower, Embracing Defeat, 198–199.

93.“Spokesman of Japan,” Sydney Morning Herald, June 13, 1953, 8; Peter Russo, “View of the Jap Soul (Before Democratised),” The (Australian) Argus, May 12, 1951, 16.

94.Paul Kramer notes the ironic similarities among the “latecomers to empire”—the United States, the Soviet Union, and Japan—regarding how “the national components of their empires became fundamental to their exceptionalist self-conceptions as anti-empires.” Kramer, “Power and Connection,” 1369.

95.John Osbourne, “Report from The Orient: Guns Are Not Enough,” Life, August 21, 1950, 77; “Betraying the American Ideal,” Christian Century, January 24, 1951, 102.

96.Miller, “‘All Quiet’ of the Eastern Front,” 8.

97.“The Quarter’s Polls,” ed. Mildred Strunk, The Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (Spring 1951): 171; Edward A. Suchman, Rose K. Goldsen and Robin M. Williams, Jr., “Attitudes toward the Korean War,” Public Opinion Quarterly 17 (Summer 1953): 171.

CHAPTER 2

1.General biographical information comes from Yamaguchi Yoshiko and Fujiwara Sakuya, Fragrant Orchid: The Story of My Early Life, translated and with an introduction by Chia-ning Chang (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015). Hereafter, page citations from this work appear parenthetically in the text. Although Yamaguchi published several versions of her life story, I rely on Fragrant Orchid as the most recent scholarly edition.

2.The exact number of war brides coming from Japan to the United States is difficult to determine. Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta place the number of marriages between GIs and Japanese women as high as 100,000, but these included unions that ended when soldiers returned to the United States without their wives. In 1957, Mike Masaoka, a spokesman for the Japanese American Citizens League, estimated that around 26,000 war brides were in the United States, making up one-sixth of the overall Japanese American population. Elfrieda Berthiaume Shukert and Barbara Smith Scibetta, War Brides of World War II (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1988), 208; “26,000 Japanese War Brides in U.S. Group Told,” Pacific Citizen, June 7, 1957, 1.

3.Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides of World War II, 193–194; Susan Zeiger, Entangling Alliances: Foreign War Brides and American Soldiers in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 2010), 188–189; Mire Koikari, “Gender, Power, and U.S. Imperialism: The Occupation of Japan, 1945–1952,” in Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History, ed. Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2005), 356–357; Akaya Yoshimizu, “‘Hello, War Brides’: Heteroglossia, Counter-Memory, and the Auto/biographical Work of Japanese War Brides,” Meridians 10, no. 1 (2010): 115–116.

4.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 163–202; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides of World War II, 197–205.

5.Ann Laura Stoler, ed., Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2006). See also Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

6.Antoinette Burton, The Trouble with Empire: Challenges to Modern British Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015); Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, eds., Moving Subjects: Gender, Mobility, and Intimacy in an Age of Global Empire (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009); Heonik Kwon, “The Transpacific Cold War,” in Transpacific Studies: Framing an Emerging Field, ed. Janet Hoskins and Viet Thanh Nguyen (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2014), 64–84.

7.Laura Hein, “Revisiting America’s Occupation of Japan,” Cold War History 11, no. 4 (November 2011): 587–589; John W. Dower, Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering: Japan in the Modern World (New York: New Press, 2012), 126–129.

8.Paul A. Kramer, “Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World,” American Historical Review 116 (December 2011): 1352.

9.Ibid., 1368–1369.

10.T. Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011); Yukiko Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999).

11.Michael Baskett, The Attractive Empire: Transnational Film Culture in Imperial Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008), 142–145; Shelley Stephenson, “A Star by Any Other Name: The (After) Lives of Li Xianglan,” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 19 (2002): 9; Yiman Wang, “Affective Politics and the Legend of Yamaguchi Yoshiko/Li Xianglan,” in Sino-Japanese Transculturation: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the End of the Pacific War, ed. Richard King, Cody Poulton, and Katsuhiko Endo (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2012), 152–156.

12.Baskett, The Attractive Empire, 135–142; Wang, “Affective Politics and the Legend of Yamaguchi Yoshiko/Li Xianglan,” 147–153.

13.Naoko Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006); Traise Yamamoto, Masking Selves, Making Subjects: Japanese American Women, Identity, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 9–61.

14.Lori Watt, When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center, 2009), 2–3, 38–39.

15.Louise Young, Japan’s Total Empire: Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). See also Stephen R. MacKinnon, Diana Lary, and Ezra F. Vogel, eds., China at War: Regions of China, 1937–1945 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2007); Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R. Peat-tie, eds., The Japanese Wartime Empire, 1931–1945 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010).

16.Dower, Ways of Forgetting, Ways of Remembering, 66–75.

17.Kyoko Hirano, Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo: Japanese Cinema under the American Occupation, 1945–1952 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 206–207.

18.For background on the film industry in imperial Japan, see Baskett, The Attractive Empire; Peter G. High, The Imperial Screen: Japanese Film Culture in the Fifteen Years’ War, 1931–1945 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003); David Desser, “From the Opium War to the Pacific War: Japanese Propaganda Films of World War II,” Film History 7, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 32–48.

19.Stephenson, “A Star by Any Other Name,” 7–8; Wang, “Affective Politics and the Legend of Yamaguchi Yoshiko/Li Xianglan,” 151.

20.Shelley Stephenson, “‘Her Traces Are Found Everywhere’: Shanghai, Li Xianglan, and the ‘Greater East Asia Film Sphere,’” in Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922–1943, ed. Yingjin Zhang (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 222–245; Yiman Wang, “Between the National and the Transnational: Li Xianglan/Yamaguchi Yoshiko and Pan-Asianism,” IIAS Newsletter 38 (September 2005): 7.

21.Watt, When Empire Comes Home, 56–97.

22.Jennifer Coates, “The Shape-Shifting Diva: Yamaguchi Yoshiko and the National Body,” Journal of Japanese and Korean Cinema 6, no. 1 (2014): 30.

23.Coates, “The Shape-Shifting Diva,” 30; High, The Imperial Screen, 237–238, 241; Kim Brandt, “‘There Was No East or West When Their Lips Met’: A Movie Poster for Japanese War Bride as Transnational Artifact,” Impressions 30 (2009): 123.

24.Coates, “The Shape-Shifting Diva,” 23–38. See also Sharalyn Orbaugh, Japanese Fiction of the Allied Occupation: Vision, Embodiment, Identity (Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2007), 389–416; Yoshikuni Igarashi, Bodies of Memory: Narratives of War in Postwar Japanese Culture, 1945–1970 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000), 35–38.

25.Postwar Japan’s collective memories of its wartime deeds are more complicated than what I can describe here. For more detailed analyses, see Franziska Seraphim, War Memory and Social Politics in Japan, 1945–2005 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006); Mariko Asano Tamanoi, Memory Maps: The State and Manchuria in Postwar Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2009).

26.Stephenson, “A Star by Any Other Name,” 10.

27.See Hirano, Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo; Hiroshi Kitamura, Screening Enlightenment: Hollywood and the Cultural Reconstruction of Defeated Japan (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2010). For documentary films, see Yuka Tsuchiya, “Imagined America in Occupied Japan: (Re-)Educational Films Shown by the U.S. Occupational Forces to the Japanese, 1948–1952,” Japanese Journal of American Studies 13 (2002): 193–213.

28.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 1–9.

29.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 131–133, 179–182; Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 199–201.

30.Madeleine Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2015); Michael G. Davis, “Impetus for Immigration Reform: Asian Refugees and the Cold War,” Journal of American–East Asian Relations 7, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter 1998): 127–156.

31.Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004): 234–248; Caroline Chung Simpson, An Absent Presence: Japanese Americans in Postwar American Culture, 1945–1960 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2001), 149–185.

32.Larry Tajiri, “The Vanishing Opposition,” Pacific Citizen, April 7, 1951, 4; “Fear Walter Omnibus Bill May Become Fuel for Red Propaganda,” Rafu Shimpo, March 11, 1952, 1; Richard Akagi, “An Open Letter,” Chicago Shimpo, October 11, 1952, 1; S. I. Hayakawa, “Letters to the Editor, Part 2,” Chicago Shimpo, November 22, 1952, 1; “Naturalized Issei Given Tribute for Hard Work in Attaining US Status,” Rafu Shimpo, December 1, 1956, 1.

33.Maureen Honey and Jean Lee Cole, eds., “Madame Butterfly” by John Luther Long and “A Japanese Nightingale” by Onoto Watanna (Winnifred Eaton): Two Orientalist Texts (New Brunswick: N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 25–79. An excellent analysis of Long’s Madame Butterfly is in Susan Koshy, Sexual Naturalization: Asian Americans and Miscegenation (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004), 29–49.

34.David Brody, Visualizing American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); David Weir, American Orient: Imagining the East from the Colonial Era through the Twentieth Century (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011).

35.See Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Populations at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001); John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Kristin L. Hoganson, Consumers’ Imperium: The Global Production of American Domesticity, 1865–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Mari Yoshihara, Embracing the East: White Women and American Orientalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).

36.Honey and Cole, “Introduction,” in “Madame Butterfly” and “A Japanese Nightingale,” 1–5.

37.Koshy, Sexual Naturalization, 32–35.

38.Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally, 1–12; Yamamoto, Masking Selves, Making Subjects, 9–61; Gina Marchetti, Romance and the “Yellow Peril”: Race, Sex, and Discursive Strategies in Hollywood Fiction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 158–201; John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 301–317.

39.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 183–187.

40.“Who’s Losing Japan?” Washington Post, May 24, 1950, 10; “Second Chance in Asia,” Commonweal, June 29, 1951, 277; “Reluctant Ally,” Nation, September 10, 1955, 215.

41.Hugh H. and Mabel M. Smythe, “Race, Culture, and Politics in Japan,” Phylon 13 (3rd Quarter 1952), 192; “Reluctant Ally,” 214; “Japan: The Cost of Arming,” Newsweek, April 18, 1955, 46.

42.“Another Ally Grows Restive,” U.S. News and World Report, December 17, 1954, 42; “Japan Eyes America for Signs of Wobbling,” Saturday Evening Post, June 11, 1955, 10; Eric Johnston, “Japan: Partner or Problem?,” Look, April 5, 1955, 104; Cameron Hawley, “Are We Driving Japan Into Red China’s Arms?” Saturday Evening Post, August 10, 1957, 18–19+; “Editorials: U.S.-Japanese Relations,” Pacific Citizen, April 15, 1955, 8.

43.“Invitation to Dance,” Newsweek, February 14, 1955, 36; N[orman] C[ousins], “They Love Us for the Wrong Reasons,” Saturday Review of Literature 35 (January 1952): 20–21.

44.Simpson, An Absent Presence, 164–171; Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally, 47–50; Pascoe, What Comes Naturally, 233–234.

45.Janet Wentworth Smith and William L. Worden, “They’re Bringing Home Japanese Wives,” Saturday Evening Post, January 19, 1952, 26–27+; Peter Kalischer, “Madame Butterfly’s Children,” Collier’s, September 20, 1952, 15–18; William L. Worden, “Where are Those Japanese War Brides?” Saturday Evening Post, November 20, 1954, 38–39+; James A. Michener, “Pursuit of Happiness by a GI and a Japanese,” Life, February 21, 1955, 124–126+; Chester Morrison, “East Meets West,” Look, October 29, 1957, 73–77.

46.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 140–150. See also Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era, rev. and updated 20th anniv. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2008).

47.Igarashi, Bodies of Memory, 13.

48.Zeiger, Entangling Alliances, 148–149, 187–189; Shukert and Scibetta, War Brides of World War II, 186–189.

49.See Susan L. Carruthers, Cold War Captives: Imprisonment, Escape, and Brainwashing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009).

50.“GI Tells Japanese Bride He Won’t Give Up Reds,” Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1953, 18.

51.J. P. McEvoy, “America through the Eyes of a Japanese War-Bride,” Reader’s Digest 66 (April 1955): 95–99.

52.Hirano, Mr. Smith Goes to Tokyo, 160–162.

53.“Story of a ‘Japanese War Bride,’” New York Times, January 30, 1952, 22; “War Bride’s Story Unique,” Los Angeles Times, February 5, 1952, C6.

54.Harry Brand, “Biography of Shirley Yamaguchi,” 1, Core Biographical Clippings, House of Bamboo, n.d., Margaret Herrick Library, Beverly Hills, Calif.

55.What has been written about Japanese War Bride focuses mainly on issues of gender dynamics occurring in the United States. See Marchetti, Romance and the “Yellow Peril,” 158–175. For a different take on the film’s spatial politics, see David Palumbo-Liu, Asian/American: Historical Crossings of a Racial Frontier (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1999), 225–232. For a transnational perspective from a historian of modern Japan that examines the film’s marketing, see Brandt, “‘There Was No East or West When Their Lips Met.’”

56.Simpson, An Absent Presence, 149–185.

57.Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally, 255–287; Yamamoto, Masking Selves, Making Subjects, 9–61.

58.Larry Tajiri, “And the Twain Shall Meet,” Pacific Citizen, September 1, 1951, 4; Tajiri, “Love Story via Hollywood,” Pacific Citizen, July 14, 1951, 4; Tajiri, “‘Japanese War Bride,’” Pacific Citizen, December 1, 1951, 4.

59.“The Treaty Conference: Formal Peace with Japan Brings Obligation to Nisei,” Pacific Citizen, September 1, 1951, 4, 7; Al Miyadi, “Oriental Orchid,” Scene, August 1950, 16.

60.Yamaguchi Yoshiko, quoted in “Book and Humanities Day Lecture Trace History of Japan’s Postwar Period through Popular Music,” UChicagoNews, https://news.uchicago.edu/article/2012/10/17/book-and-humanities-day-lecture-trace-history-japan-s-postwar-period-through-popu (accessed January 7, 2017). See also Brownie Furutani, “Japanese Actress Will Sing before Mainland Audiences,” Pacific Citizen, June 3, 1950, 2; Michael K. Bourdaghs, Sayonara Amerika, Sayonara Nippon: A Geopolitical Prehistory of J-Pop (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 58–60, 75–77.

61.“Shirley ‘Rikoran’ Yamaguchi Slated to Sign Contract for Hollywood Film Role,” Nichi Bei Times, August 18, 1950, 1; Tajiri, “Love Story via Hollywood,” 4. See also Furutani, “Japanese Actress Will Sing before Mainland Audiences,” 2; “Rikoran’s American Film on Screen Soon,” Chicago Shimpo, January 12, 1952, 1; “Yamaguchi Film Here,” Chicago Shimpo, March 8, 1952, 1; “Rikoran Studies Scripts in Hollywood, Receives Publicity in Many Columns,” Nichi Bei Times, July 26, 1950, 1.

62.After 1952, some popular periodicals still remained wary of Japanese intentions. See for instance, Johnston, “Japan: Partner or Problem?,” 104; “Another Ally Grows Restive,” U.S. News and World Report, December 17, 1954, 45; Peter Kallischer, “Japan,” Collier’s, March 2, 1956, 58.

63.Larry Tajiri, “Notes from Hollywood,” Pacific Citizen, July 8, 1950, 4; “Japanese War Bride,” Time, February 4, 1952, 74; Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms, 84.

64.“Story of a ‘Japanese War Bride,’” New York Times, January 30, 1952, 22. See also “Japanese War Bride,” Time, February 4, 1952, 74; Rod Nordell, “Don Taylor in Problem Film with Shirley Yamaguchi,” Christian Science Monitor, February 8, 1952, 5; Ray Falk, “Japanese Screen Scene: East Meets West with Varying Reactions as American Producers Invade Nippon,” New York Times, February 3, 1952, X5.

65.Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms, 84; Masayo Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi: Journey without Borders, translated by Peter Duus (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004), 231.

66.Wang, “Affective Politics and the Legend of Yamaguchi Yoshiko/Li Xianglan,” 153, 160.

67.Isamu Noguchi, A Sculptor’s World (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), 19–24; Hayden Herrera, Listening to Stone: The Art and Life of Isamu Noguchi (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015), 205–214; Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 11–136.

68.Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 224–226.

69.Robert J. Maeda, “Isamu Noguchi: 5–7-A, Poston, Arizona,” Amerasia Journal 20, no. 2 (1994): 61–76.

70.Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 221–222, 224–225; Herrera, Listening to Stone, 279–280.

71.Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 235–237.

72.Noguchi, A Sculptor’s World, 32.

73.Noguchi, quoted in Herrera, Listening to Stone, 285; Noguchi, A Sculptor’s World, 163.

74.Noguchi, A Sculptor’s World, 32.

75.See Daisuke Miyao, Sessue Hayakawa: Silent Cinema and Transnational Stardom (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).

76.Samuel Fuller, with Christa Lang Fuller and Jerome Henry Rudes, A Third Face: My Tale of Writing, Fighting, and Filmmaking (New York: Knopf, 2002), 323.

77.“House of Bamboo,” Time, August 1, 1955, 61; “Under the Color,” Newsweek, July 18, 1955, 83; Bosley Crowther, “Term Examination,” New York Times, July 3, 1955, X1; Ray Falk, “Americans in the Nipponese Cinema Scope,” New York Times, July 3, 1955, X5; Hollis Alpert, “The House of Bamboo,” Saturday Review, July 23, 1955, 23; Moira Walsh, “Films: House of Bamboo,” America, July 23, 1955, 419.

78.On “the imperial gaze,” see E. Ann Kaplan, Looking for the Other: Feminism, Film, and the Imperial Gaze (New York: Routledge, 1997). See also Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Second Edition (New York: Routledge, 2007); Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media (New York: Routledge, 1994), 100–136.

79.Lucy Herndon Crockett, “GI Holidays in Japan,” Travel 89 (August 1947): 32.

80.Miriam Troop, “I’ve Got a Yen for Japan,” American Magazine 159 (June 1955): 100.

81.Fuller, A Third Face, 323.

82.Alpert, “The House of Bamboo,” 23.

83.“House of Bamboo,” Time, August 1, 1955, 61; “Under the Color,” Newsweek, July 18, 1955, 83.

84.Harry Brand, “Vital Statistics on ‘House of Bamboo,’” 1, Core Production Clippings, n.d.; Fuller, quoted in “Orient Beckons CinemaScope,” 2, Exhibitor’s Campaign Book, House of Bamboo, n.d., Margaret Herrick Library, Beverly Hills, Calif.

85.Fuller, A Third Face, 315–316.

86.Bosley Crowther, “Screen: Starring Tokyo,” New York Times, July 2, 1955, 13.

87.“Japanese Attack Hollywood Policy in Film Selection,” Christian Science Monitor, September 8, 1955, 4. See also “Threat to Ban All U.S. Movies Made by Japanese Theater-Owner,” Pacific Citizen, September 16, 1955, 2.

88.Larry Tajiri, “New Cycle of Orient-Caucasian Romances,” Pacific Citizen, April 15, 1955, 1; Tajiri, “East Meets West on Screen,” Pacific Citizen, July 22, 1955, 8.

89.Tamotsu Murayama, “‘Blackboard Jungle’ Cheapens U.S. in Eyes of Japanese as Controversial Movie Arouses Press, Parents and Educators,” Pacific Citizen, September 16, 1955, 2; “Threat to Ban All U.S. Movies Made by Japanese Theater-Owner,” 2.

90.Shinichi Hasagawa, “Shirley Starts Anew—As Diplomat’s Wife,” Japan Times, March 8, 1958, 7.

91.Exhibitor’s Campaign Book, House of Bamboo, 1.

92.Quoted in Bert Winther, “The Rejection of Isamu Noguchi’s Hiroshima Cenotaph: A Japanese American Artist in Occupied Japan,” Art Journal 53, no. 4 (Winter 1994): 26.

93.Winther, “The Rejection of Isamu Noguchi’s Hiroshima Cenotaph,” 26. See also Bert Winther-Tamaki, Art in the Encounter of Nations: Japanese and American Artists in the Early Postwar Years (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2001).

94.Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 252–258; Herrera, Listening to Stone, 308–309.

95.Noguchi, quoted in Winther, “The Rejection of Isamu Noguchi’s Hiroshima Cenotaph,” 26.

96.Winther, “The Rejection of Isamu Noguchi’s Hiroshima Cenotaph,” 26–27.

97.Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi, 260–266.

98.Ibid., 269–271; Herrera, Listening to Stone, 314–315.

99.John L. Scott, “Fortune Bolt Puts Miiko in Top Film Spot,” Los Angeles Times, May 5, 1957, E3.

100.Wang, “Affective Politics and the Legend of Yamaguchi Yoshiko/Li Xianglan,” 161–162, Wang, “Between the National and the Transnational,” 7.

CHAPTER 3

1.Henry Sugimoto, Typed statement of testimony before the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC), circa 1981, 1, in Henry Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, SC 929, Box 15, Folder 2 (hereafter cited as Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries); Kristine Kim, Henry Sugimoto: Painting an American Experience (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2000), 105–106; Alice Yang Murray, Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment and the Struggle for Redress (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008), 185–381.

2.Henry Sugimoto, “From Paris to Mexico in 1963,” in “Life Story,” translated and prepared by Emily Anderson (unpublished manuscript, 2000), 1; Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 11–31, 104.

3.Murray, Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment, 185–381.

4.Gordon H. Chang, Mark Dean Johnson, Paul J. Karlstrom, and Sharon Spain, eds., Asian American Art: A History, 1850–1970 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2008), 126.

5.Debates about what various ideas define “cosmopolitanism” can be found in Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins, eds., Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998); Bruce Robbins and Paulo Lemos Horta, eds., Cosmopolitanisms (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

6.My definition of “racialized cosmopolitanism” overlaps with, but also differs from, Susan Koshy’s phrase, “minority cosmopolitanism” (as discussed in Chapter 1). Similar to Koshy, I link the idea of cosmopolitanism to ethnic studies, with a focus that shifts away from European-centered subjects. However, I am also framing a more evident tension between a state’s power to define and incarcerate a racialized population and Sugimoto’s response, from a cosmopolitan worldview, to transcend, but also to protest, that specific historical moment of confinement. See Koshy, “Minority Cosmopolitanism” PMLA 126 (May 2011): 592–609.

7.Lawrence M. Small, “Foreword,” and Karen Higa, “Introduction,” in Kim, Henry Sugimoto, viii, ix.

8.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 103–104.

9.By claiming Sugimoto’s fit in a “Japanese/American” configuration, I complicate previous work on him and on other Japanese American artists that also interrogate the transformation of Japanese immigrants into American citizens. See Kim, Henry Sugimoto; ShiPu Wang, Becoming American? The Art and Identity Crisis of Yasuo Kuniyoshi (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2011).

10.Henry Sugimoto, Handwritten notes expressing his views on art, n.d., 3, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

11.Ibid.

12.Greg Robinson, “Henry Sugimoto,” Densho Encyclopedia, http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Henry%20Sugimoto/#cite_ref-ftnt_ref3_3-0 (accessed July 22, 2017); Kubo Sadajiro, “History of the Sufferings of the Japanese Citizens,” in Henry Sugimoto, North American Japanese People in Relocation Camps (Self-Publication, 1983), 11.

13.Boris Musich, “Interview with Henry Sugimoto,” December 1986 (unpublished manuscript), 6, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

14.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 3–6, 11–13; Typed transcript of unindentified interview with Henry Sugimoto, circa 1982, 1–2, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

15.Michael D. Brown, Views from Asian California, 1920–1965 (San Francisco: Michael Brown, 1992), 6–7.

16.Sugimoto, “Because I Wanted to See Paintings by Old and New Masters,” in “Life Story,” 1; Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 12–13.

17.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 12–17.

18.Jean Selz, Vlaminck, translated from the French by Graham Snell (New York: Crown, 1963). For context on the Postimpressionists, see T. J. Clark, The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and His Followers (New York: Knopf, 1985); Sue Roe, In Montmartre: Picasso, Matisse and the Birth of Modernist Art (New York: Penguin, 2015).

19.These and other works of Sugimoto’s can be viewed on the Japanese National American Museum site: http://www.janm.org/collections/henry-sugimoto-collection/.

20.Exhibition of Paintings by Henry Sugimoto, quoted in Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 34.

21.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 35.

22.“17 Paintings by Nippon Artist[s] in Exhibition,” Kashu Mainichi, January 27, 1935, n.p.; “Open First Oriental Modern Art Exhibit at Gallery in L.A.,” Kashu Mainichi, April 27, 1934, 1; “Young Nisei Artists to Exhibit at Wilshire Art Gallery Showing,” Rafu Shimpo, April 4, 1934, 1, all in Henry Sugimoto, “Press,” Department of Special Collections, Stanford University Libraries, SC 929, Box 15, Folder 1 (hereafter cited as Sugimoto, “Press,” Stanford University Libraries).

23.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 36–37.

24.Sugimoto, quoted in Ruth Gomes, “Sugimoto Exhibit Coming to Kings Art Center,” Hanford Sentinel, June 16, 2000, B1, in Sugimoto, “Press,” Stanford University Libraries.

25.Sugimoto, “Sketching in Carmel,” in “Life Story,” 2–3; Sugimoto, “Because I Wanted to See Paintings by Old and New European Masters,” in “Life Story,” 7.

26.Sugimoto, “Sketching Trip in Mexico,” in “Life Story,” 1.

27.Ibid., 3–4.

28.James Oles, South of the Border: Mexico in the American Imagination, 1914–1947 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993).

29.Stacy I. Morgan, Rethinking Social Realism: African American Art and Literature, 1930–1953 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004), 45–48; Rebecca Schreiber, Cold War Exiles in Mexico: U.S. Dissidents and the Culture of Critical Resistance (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 30–34.

30.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 38–39.

31.Higa, “Introduction,” in Kim, Henry Sugimoto, xiii.

32.See Jane E. Dusselier, Artifacts of Loss: Crafting Survival in Japanese American Concentration Camps (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2008); Delphine Hirasuna, Terry Heffernan, and Kit Hinrichs, The Art of Gaman: Arts and Crafts from the Japanese American Internment Camps, 1942–1946 (Berkeley, Calif.: Ten Speed Press, 2005); Jasmine Alinder, Moving Images: Photography and the Japanese American Incarceration (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010); Kristine C. Kuramitsu, “Internment and Identity in Japanese American Art,” American Quarterly 47, no. 4 (December 1995): 619–658; Karin M. Higa, The View from Within: Japanese American Art from the Internment Camps, 1942–1945 (Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum, UCLA Wight Art Gallery, and UCLA Asian American Studies Center, 1992); Deborah Gesensway and Mindy Roseman, Beyond Words: Images from America’s Concentration Camps (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987), 30–40.

33.Alinder, Moving Images, 44–74; Elena Tajima Creef, Imaging Japanese America: The Visual Construction of Citizenship, Nation, and the Body (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 18–37; Thy Phu, Picturing Model Citizens: Civility in Asian American Visual Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2011), 60–67.

34.Linda Gordon and Gary Y. Okihiro, eds., Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the Censored Images of Japanese American Internment (New York: Norton, 2006); Alinder, Moving Images 23–43; Creef, Imaging Japanese America, 37–57.

35.Alinder, Moving Images, 3.

36.Ibid., 3–4, 12–18; Creef, Imaging Japanese America, 19–22, 41–43, 45–46; Phu, Picturing Model Citizens, 54–83. See also Marita Sturken, “Absent Images of Memory: Remembering and Reenacting the Japanese American Internment,” positions 5, no. 3 (Winter 1997): 687–707. For works on aspects of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century visual culture and Orientalism, refer to Anthony W. Lee, Picturing Chinatown: Art and Orientalism in San Francisco (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999), 15–144; John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 131–154; David Brody, Visualizing American Empire: Orientalism and Imperialism in the Philippines (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010); Laura Wexler, Tender Violence: Domestic Visions in an Age of U.S. Imperialism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000).

37.Alinder, Moving Images, 75–102; Creef, Imaging Japanese America, 57–64. See also Eric L. Muller, Colors of Confinement: Rare Kodachrome Photographs of Japanese American Incarceration in World War II (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012); Lane Ryo Hirabayashi with Kenichiro Shimada, Japanese American Resettlement through the Lens: Hikaru Carl Iwasaki and the WRA’s Photographic Section, 1943–1945 (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009); Kim Kodani Hill, ed., Topaz Moon: Chiura Obata’s Art of the Internment (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2000); Hisako Hibi, with Ibuki H. Lee, Peaceful Painter: Memoirs of an Issei Woman Artist (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2004).

38.Sugimoto, Handwritten notes expressing his views on art, 2, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

39.Lee, Orientals, 145–179.

40.Typed transcript of unindentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 10–11, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

41.See Alejandro Anreus, Robin Adèle Greeley, and Leonard Folgarait, eds., Mexican Muralism: A Critical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); Matthew Affron, Mark A. Castro, Renato González Mello, and Dafne Cruz Porchini, eds., Paint the Revolution: Mexican Modernism, 1910–1950 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2016).

42.Nancy Sparks, “Tragic Artwork from Rohwer,” (newspaper clipping, no publication title, n.d.), 8B, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries; Collette Chattopadhyay, “Henry Sugimoto at the Japanese American National Museum,” Artweek 32 (July–August 2001): 22, in Sugimoto, “Press,” Stanford University Libraries.

43.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 54–55.

44.Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps, updated ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 33–102; Greg Robinson, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 59–153.

45.Gesensway and Roseman, Beyond Words, 34; Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 22, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries. Most currency converters estimate that ten thousand dollars in 1942 would have been the equivalent to well over one hundred thousand dollars in the 1980s, when Sugimoto made this statement about the worth of his lost art.

46.Typed transcript of statements by Henry Sugimoto and members of the CWRIC, circa 1981, 276, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

47.Ibid.; Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 66–67.

48.Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 15, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

49.Ibid., 15.

50.Ibid., 9; Musich, “Interview with Henry Sugimoto,” 6.

51.Sugimoto, “Continuing My Education on My Own in California,” in “Life Story,” 2; Typed transcript of unindentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 19, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

52.Wendy Kozol, “Madonnas of the Fields: Photography, Gender, and 1930s Farm Relief,” Genders 2 (Summer 1988): 1–23. See also James Curtis, Mind’s Eye, Mind’s Truth: FSA Photography Reconsidered (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989), 46–67; William Stott, Documentary Expression and Thirties America, with a New Afterword (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Carl Fleischhauer and Beverly W. Brannan, eds., Documenting America, 1935–1943 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 114–127.

53.Robert Hariman and John Louis Lucaites, No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 56–60.

54.Colleen Lye, America’s Asia: Racial Form and American Literature, 1893–1945 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2005), 156.

55.Lye, America’s Asia, 153–173. See also Brian Masaru Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy: The Japanese American Internment (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004); Phu, Picturing Model Citizens, 58–75.

56.The film clips are from the documentary Harsh Canvas: The Art and Life of Henry Sugimoto, directed by John Esaki (Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum Media Arts Center, 2001), 30 min.

57.Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 17, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries; Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 84.

58.In her postwar memoir, Citizen 13660 (1946), Miné Okubo conveyed in text and in illustrations a similar scene to that rendered by Sugimoto. Her drawing of the mess hall is comparable to his, with eight people sitting four to each side of a table in flattened perspective, as they eat, talk, sneeze, or squirm in their seats. Her text description of the scene verifies the lack of sufficient food. “Before mess tickets were issued,” she writes, “most of us were hungry after one meal, so we would dash to another mess hall for a second meal.” See Okubo, Citizen 13660 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1983), 89.

59.Sugimoto, Handwritten notes on his wartime removal and confinement, n.d., 5, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

60.Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, foreword by Tetsuden Kashima (Washington, D.C.: Civil Liberties Public Education Fund; Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 185–212; T. Fujitani, Race for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 163–205; Eric L. Muller, Free to Die for Their Country: The Story of the Japanese-American Draft Resisters in World War II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 134–173.

61.Paul Faris, “Special to Art News,” n.d., in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries. See also John Howard, Concentration Camps on the Home Front: Japanese Americans in the House of Jim Crow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 160–161.

62.Robert W. Meriwether, “Hendrix History: The Sugimoto Exhibition, 1944,” August 1987, (unpublished manuscript), 2–3, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

63.Jason Morgan Ward, “‘No Jap Crow’: Japanese Americans Encounter the World War II South,” Journal of Southern History 73 (February 2007): 85–86; Russell Bearden, “Life inside Arkansas’s Japanese-American Relocation Centers,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 48, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 191. The author thanks Greg Robinson for the information on Sugimoto’s trip to New Orleans.

64.Chang et al., Asian American Art, 128–129.

65.Grace Elizabeth Hale, Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940 (New York: Pantheon, 1998), 121–197.

66.Ward, “‘No Jap Crow,’” 75–104; Howard, Concentration Camps on the Home Front, 95–197; Leslie Bow, Partly Colored: Asian Americans and Racial Anomaly in the Segregated South (New York: New York University Press, 2010), 130–131.

67.Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 19, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

68.Ibid., 12; Sugimoto, “New Year’s Day Thoughts,” in “Life Story,” 1–5.

69.Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 7–8, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

70.The historical periodization of these works is imprecise, and I have relied on the Japanese American National Museum’s online collection of Sugimoto’s paintings that date them as “circa 1965.” See http://www.janm.org/collections/henry-sugimoto-collection/.

71.Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 103.

72.Typed transcript of unidentified interview with Sugimoto, circa 1982, 17–18, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries; Kim, Henry Sugimoto, 104.

73.Jane de Hart Mathews, “Art and Politics in Cold War America,” American Historical Review 81, no. 4 (October 1976): 762–787; Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Freedom, and the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983).

74.David Craven, Abstract Expressionism and the Cultural Logic of Romantic Anti-Capitalism: Dissent during the McCarthy Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Greg Barnhisel, Cold War Modernists: Art, Literature, and American Cultural Diplomacy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015); Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 2000); Andrew N. Rubin, Archives of Authority: Empire, Culture, and the Cold War (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2012).

75.Musich, “Interview with Henry Sugimoto,” 3, in Sugimoto, “Interviews,” Stanford University Libraries.

76.Morgan, Rethinking Social Realism, 42–105.

77.Amalia K. Amaki and Andrea Barnwell Brownlee, Hale Woodruff, Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, and the Academy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007).

78.Morgan, Rethinking Social Realism, 43–48; Schreiber, Cold War Exiles in Mexico, 27–57.

79.Morgan, Rethinking Social Realism, 46–48.

80.Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999); David R. Roediger, Working toward Whiteness: How America’s Immigrants Became White: The Strange Journey from Ellis Island to the Suburbs (New York: Basic, 2006).

81.Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation, rev. ed. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 3–65.

82.Ibid., 61–65. See also Paul R. Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).

CHAPTER 4

1.Yoshiko Uchida to Dwight and Iku Uchida, [letter fragment] 1950, Box 61, Folder 3, Yoshiko Uchida Papers, BANC MSS 86/97 c, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter cited as Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library).

2.For scholarship on Uchida and the wartime confinement, see Ann Rayson, “Beneath the Mask: Autobiographies of Japanese-American Women,” MELUS 14 (Spring 1987): 43–57; Masami Usui, “Regaining Lost Privacy: Yoshiko Uchida’s Story Telling as a Nisei Woman Writer,” Studies in Culture and the Humanities [Ningen bunka kenkyu] 3 (1994): 1–22; Violet H. Harada, “Caught between Two Worlds: Themes of Family, Community, and Ethnic Identity in Yoshiko Uchida’s Works for Children,” Children’s Literature in Education 29 (March 1998): 19–30; Danton McDiffett, “Prejudice and Pride: Japanese Americans in the Young Adult Novels of Yoshiko Uchida,” English Journal 90 (January 2001): 60–65; Montye P. Fuse, “Under the Burden of Yellow Peril: Race, Class, and Gender in Yoshiko Uchida’s Picture Bride (1987),” in Women in Literature: Reading through the Lens of Gender, ed. Jerilyn Fisher and Ellen S. Silber (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2003), 230–233; Rocio G. Davis, “Ethnic Autobiography as Children’s Literature: Laurence Yep’s The Lost Garden and Yoshiko Uchida’s The Invisible Thread,” Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 28 (Summer 2003): 90–97; Fu-jen Chen and Su-lin Yu, “Asian North-American Children’s Literature About the Internment: Visualizing and Verbalizing the Traumatic Thing,” Children’s Literature in Education 37 (April 2006): 111–124; Matthew Teorey, “Untangled Barbed Wire Attitudes: Internment Literature for Young Adults,” Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 33 (Fall 2008): 227–245.

3.John Okada’s novel No-No Boy (1957) presents the most recognized example of how a postwar text could be ignored if it went too far against the commemorative grain regarding the “Good War.” A few Japanese Americans, however, managed to achieve public recognition for their writings on the removal and incarceration. The artist Miné Okubo’s Citizen 13660 (1946) depicted her hardships through a combination of text and drawings. Monica Sone’s memoir Nisei Daughter (1953) traced her childhood in Seattle, Washington, during the 1930s and then her adolescence in the camps. Two novels, Shelley Ota’s Upon Their Shoulders (1951) and Kazuo Miyamoto’s Hawaii: End of the Rainbow (1964), portray generations of family struggles and triumphs in Hawai‘i, with the mainland incarceration playing a part in these narratives. The Pacific Citizen and other periodicals throughout the 1950s printed short stories by Toshio Mori, Hisaye Yamamoto, and others about the aftereffects of the imprisonment on Japanese American communities. Sympathetic white authors also contributed fictional work on this topic, including Karen Kehoe’s City in the Sun (1946) and James Edmiston’s Home Again (1955). Florence Crannell Means, a writer of children’s books, won a Newbery Honor award in 1946 for The Moved-Outers (1945).

4.Catherine E. Studier Chang, “Profile: Yoshiko Uchida,” Language Arts 61 (February 1984): 192–193; Barbara Bader, “Multiculturalism Takes Root: Yoshiko Uchida,” Horn Book Magazine 79 (March–April 2003): 143–145; Katharine Capshaw Smith, “Introduction: The Landscape of Ethnic American Children’s Literature,” MELUS 27 (Spring 2002): 3–8.

5.Yoshiko Uchida, Desert Exile: The Uprooting of a Japanese-American Family (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1982), 5–6. Future page citations appear parenthetically in the chapter.

6.Dwight Uchida, letters to family (December 1941 to April 1942), Online Archives of California, http://www.oac.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/tf367n99st/?brand=oac4 (accessed June 20, 2015).

7.Yoshiko Uchida, diary entry, September 27, 1942, Box 63, Folder 13, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

8.See also Sandra C. Taylor, Jewel of the Desert: Japanese American Internment at Topaz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).

9.Uchida, diary entry, September 27, 1942.

10.Ibid.

11.Ibid.

12.Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination, 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). See also Naoko Shibusawa, America’s Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2006).

13.Jack Zipes, Fairy Tale as Myth, Myth as Fairy Tale (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1994), 19.

14.Yoshiko Uchida, The Dancing Kettle and Other Japanese Folk Tales (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949), vii.

15.Saturday Review of Literature, May 21, 1949, 38, Box 16, Folder 5, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

16.Review of The Dancing Kettle, New York Herald Tribune, May 8, 1949, 13, Box 16, Folder 5, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

17.F.S.C. Northrop, The Meeting of East and West: An Inquiry Concerning World Understanding (New York: Macmillan, 1946), 4.

18.Review of The Magic Listening Cap, San Francisco Chronicle, May 22, 1955, 22, Box 16, Folder 6, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

19.For biographical information on Taro Yashima, refer to Naoko Shibusawa, “‘The Artist Belongs to the People’: The Odyssey of Taro Yashima,” Journal of Asian American Studies 8 (October 2005): 257–275.

20.Taro Yashima, The Village Tree (New York: Viking, 1953), 4.

21.Pat Clark, “Japanese Boyhood: The Village Tree,” New York Times, November 15, 1953, BRA43.

22.Maxine LaBounty, “First Climb of Matterhorn Made Memorable in Fiction,” Washington Post, December 5, 1954, B6.

23.Nancy Barr Mavity, “Oakland Girl Writes Tales of Old Japan,” Oakland Tribune, March 6, 1955, 2-C, Box 28, Folder 6, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

24.Virginia Kirkus Bookshop Service Bulletin, March 15, 1949, 148, Series I, Box 1, Folder 7, Yoshiko Uchida Papers, Ax 549, Special Collections and University Archives, University of Oregon Libraries, Eugene, Oregon (hereafter cited as Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries).

25.Uchida, Dancing Kettle, 9; Uchida, The Magic Listening Cap: More Folk Tales from Japan (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1955), 3.

26.Larry Reed [Wichita, Kansas] to Yoshiko Uchida, December 4, 1959, Box 13, Folder 14, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

27.Mary O. Pottenger [General Supervisor of Elementary Education, Public Schools of Springfield, Massachusetts] to Yoshiko Uchida, July 19, 1949, Box 16, Folder 8, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

28.Yoshiko Uchida to Mrs. Eula Ruth [Springdale, Arkansas], February 26, 1952, Series I, Box 1, Folder 6, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

29.Nichi Bei Times, March 15, 1949 (clipping, n.p.), Box 16, Folder 5, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library; “Book Reviews: Dancing Kettle/Nisei Writer Retells Famous Old Folk Tales of Japan,” Pacific Citizen, March 26, 1949 (clipping, n.p.), Series I, Box 1, Folder 7, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

30.Yoshiko Uchida to Margaret McElderry, January 19, 1949. See also Uchida to McElderry, February 16, 1953, Series I, Box 1, Folder 2, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

31.Yuri Iwabuchi [Tokyo, Japan] to Yoshiko Uchida, July 26, 1949, Box 16, Folder 8, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

32.Sanshiro Ikeda [Nagano, Japan] to Yoshiko Uchida, March 9, 1955, Box 4, Folder 14, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

33.Yoshiko Uchida, The Invisible Thread (New York: Julian Messner, 1991), 14. Hereafter, page citations appear parenthetically in the text.

34.Rayson, “Beneath the Mask,” 53–55; Harada, “Caught between Two Worlds,” 22–29; Davis, “Ethnic Autobiography as Children’s Literature,” 94–97. See also Traise Yamamoto, Masking Selves, Making Subjects: Japanese American Women, Identity, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 102–140.

35.Yoshiko Uchida (Tokyo) to parents (Oakland, CA), October 20, 1952; Uchida (Tokyo) to parents (Oakland, CA), October 22, 1952, Box 61, Folder 3, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

36.Yoshiko Uchida (Tokyo) to parents (Oakland, CA), November 5, 1952, Box 61, Folder 3, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

37.Yoshiko Uchida, “We Want You to Be Happy: A Nisei in Japan,” 3–4 (unpublished manuscript, March 1953), Box 46, Folder 17, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

38.Yoshiko Uchida (Kyoto) to parents (Oakland, CA), January 16, 1953, Box 61, Folder 4, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

39.Frances Wrenn Moto-o, “All Children Live in One World; ‘International Education’ Stressed (Miss Uchida in Kyoto on Ford Foundation Fellowship),” Mainichi, March 23, 1953, Box 61, Folder 4, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

40.“A Portrait of Modern Japan,” Arrietty’s Notes, no. 12, February 1958, 2, Series V, Box 1, Folder 36, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

41.Nicole Sackley, “Cosmopolitanism and the Uses of Tradition: Robert Redfield and Alternative Visions of Modernization during the Cold War,” Modern Intellectual History 9, no. 3 (November 2012): 566, 569–570.

42.It is unknown whether or not Uchida was aware of the more complex history of mingei and its ambiguous relationship to the Japanese state and imperialism, to industrial development, and to the changes within middle-class consumerism. See Kim Brandt, Kingdom of Beauty: Mingei and the Politics of Folk Art in Imperial Japan (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).

43.Yoshiko Uchida, “Folk Art of Japan,” Craft Horizons, September–October 1955, 22, Box 45, Folder 7, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

44.Ibid., 25.

45.Yoshiko Uchida, Takao and Grandfather’s Sword (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1958), 19.

46.Yoshiko Uchida, The Full Circle (New York: Friendship Press, 1957), vii. Hereafter, page citations appear parenthetically in the text.

47.Louise DeForest to Uchida, March 30 [no year], Box 3, Folder 9, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

48.Yoshiko Uchida, Journey Home (New York: Aladdin, 1992), 104.

49.Yoshiko Uchida, New Friends for Susan (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951), 184.

50.Form letter from Alice Dalgliesh, Editor, Books for Younger Readers, Charles Scribner’s Sons, re: New Friends for Susan, December 7, 1952, Box 2, Folder 10, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library; Dust jacket, New Friends for Susan, Box 28, Folder 18, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

51.Gladys Grofoot Castor, clipping from New York Times Book Review, November 4, 1951, Box 28, Folder 19, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

52.“Scribner’s Publishes Another Book by Yoshiko Uchida,” clipping from Rafu Shimpo, n.d., n.p.; “Former Berkeley Nisei Pens Second Children’s Book,” clipping from Nichi Bei Times, November 16, 1951, n.p.; “‘New Friends for Susan,’ But No Tears for Tolerance in Kids’ Book by Nisei,” clipping from Hokubei Shimpo, November 1951, n.p., all in Box 28, Folder 19, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

53.Yoshiko Uchida, “An Autobiography,” 8–9, (unpublished manuscript, 1952), Box 50, Folder 5, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

54.Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951 Books for Younger Readers catalogue, n.p., Box 28, Folder 19, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

55.Clipping from Nichi Bei Times, December 25, 1951, n.p., Box 28, Folder 19, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

56.“Annual Report of Stateside Activities Supporting the Reorientation Program in Japan and the Ryukyu Islands,” Washington, D.C.: Reorientation Branch, Office for Occupied Areas, Office of the Secretary of the Army, October 1950, 1. For more information on the role of literature in the reorientation program, see Hiromi Ochi, “Democratic Bookshelf: American Libraries in Occupied Japan,” in Pressing the Fight: Print, Propaganda, and the Cold War, ed. Greg Barnhisel and Catherine Turner (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010), 89–111; Marlene J. Mayo, “Literary Reorientation in Occupied Japan: Incidents of Civil Censorship,” in Legacies and Ambiguities: Postwar Fiction and Culture in West Germany and Japan, ed. Ernestine Schlant and J. Thomas Riner (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 135–161; Yuka Moriguchi Tsuchiya, “Military Occupation as Pedagogy: The U.S. Re-education and Reorientation Policy for Occupied Japan, 1945–1952” (Ph.D. diss., University of Minnesota, December 2004).

57.John I. Pray, Lt. Colonel GSC Chief, NY field office, to Miss Joanna Foster, Assistant Editor, Books for Younger Readers, Charles Scribner’s Sons, October 31, 1951, Box 2, Folder 10, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

58.Nancy Larrick, “The All-White World of Children’s Books,” Saturday Review of Literature, September 11, 1965, 63.

59.Yoshiko Uchida, The Promised Year (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959), 14. Hereafter, page citations appear parenthetically in the text.

60.Charlotte Jackson, “California Authors—New Work by Familiar Personalities,” San Francisco Sunday Chronicle, November 13, 1960, 4, Box 28, Folder 11, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

61.Olga Hoyt, “New Books for the Young Readers’ Library,” New York Times Book Review, January 22, 1961 (newspaper clipping, n.p.), Box 28, Folder 11, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

62.Ellen D. Wu, The Color of Success: Asian Americans and the Origins of the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014). See also Cindy I-Fen Cheng, Citizens of Asian America: Democracy and Race during the Cold War (New York: New York University Press, 2013); Madeline Y. Hsu, The Good Immigrants: How the Yellow Peril Became the Model Minority (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2015).

63.Yoshiko Uchida to Margaret McElderry, November 27, 1959, Series VII, Box 2, Folder 12, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

64.Margaret McElderry to Yoshiko Uchida, January 6, 1960, Series VII, Box 2, Folder 14, Uchida Papers, University of Oregon Libraries.

65.Uchida, The Invisible Thread, 125–129; Uchida, “An Autobiography,” 10.

66.Uchida, “An Autobiography,” 10.

67.Yoshiko Uchida, “Courage of the Issei,” 5, April 1949, Box 46, Folder 14, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

68.A fellow teacher with Uchida at the Frankford Friends School in Philadelphia wrote to the author about this published work: “It almost broke my heart when I realized once again what had been done to the Japanese-Americans.” Reba S. Lammey to Uchida, October 28, 1952, Box 5, Folder 1, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

69.The story has no specific date on it, but its likely composition was around 1952, like Uchida’s other adult short fiction about the wartime confinement. “Crepe Paper Flowers,” Box 39, Folder 7, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

70.Taylor, Jewel of the Desert, 136–146.

71.Yoshiko Uchida, diary entry, April 12, 1943, Box 63, Folder 14, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

72.Miné Okubo, Citizen 13660 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1983), 180– 181. See also Heather Fryer, “Miné Okubo’s War: Citizen 13660’s Attack on Government Propaganda,” in Miné Okubo: Following Her Own Road, ed. Greg Robinson and Elena Tajima Creef (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008), 89, 95.

73.Yoshiko Uchida, “The Crepe Paper Flowers,” 1, Box 39, Folder 7, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

74.Harriet Wolf to Yoshiko Uchida, August 26, 1952, Box 7, Folder 12, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

75.Lee [no surname] to Harriet Wolf, November 18, 1952, Box 7, Folder 12, Uchida Papers, Bancroft Library.

76.Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America’s Concentration Camps, updated ed. (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 156–173; Greg Robinson, A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2009), 162–167.

77.Yoshiko Uchida, Journey to Topaz (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2009), 121.

78.Yoshiko Uchida, Picture Bride (New York: Fireside, 1987), 216.

CONCLUSION

1.Janet Hoskins and Viet Thanh Nguyen, eds., Transpacific Studies: Framing an Emerging Field (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2014), 3.

2.Ibid., 8.

3.The philosopher Anthony Kwame Appiah argues for a “rooted cosmopolitanism,” which contrasts against comprehending worldliness as transcending, or being detached from, specific localities. In his framing, persons are “attached to a home of his or her own, with its own cultural particularities, but taking pleasure from the presence of other, different, places that are home to other, different people.” See Appiah, “Cosmopolitan Patriots,” in Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling beyond the Nation, ed. Pheng Cheah and Bruce Robbins (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 91.

4.Lisa Lowe, The Intimacies of Four Continents (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2015); Anthony Pagden, “Stoicism, Cosmopolitanism, and the Legacy of European Imperialism,” Constellations 7, no. 1 (2000): 3–22. See also Eduardo Mendieta, “From Imperial to Dialogical Cosmopolitanism,” Ethics and Global Politics 2, no. 3 (2009): 241–258. A recent collection of essays assessing the merits, limits, and changing nature of cosmopolitanism as a Western and a global alternative construct is Bruce Robbins and Paulo Lemos Horta, eds., Cosmopolitanisms (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

5.Silviano Santiago, “The Cosmopolitanism of the Poor,” translated by Magdalena Edwards and Paulo Lemos Horta, in Robbins and Horta, Cosmopolitanisms; Sheldon Pollock, Homi K. Bhabha, Carol A. Breckenridge, and Dipesh Chakrabarty, “Cosmopolitanisms,” Public Culture 12, no. 3 (2000): 577–589; James Clifford, “Traveling Cultures,” in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York: Routledge, 1992), 96–116.

6.Ed Pilkington, “Japanese American Internment Survivor Hears Troubling Echoes in Trump Rhetoric,” Guardian, May 28, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/may/28/japanese-american-internment-survivor-donald-trump-rhetoric (accessed February 15, 2018).

7.For cultural perspectives on this matter, see Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East since 1945, updated ed., with a post-9/11 chapter (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 266–307; Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture: Cold War America and the Disillusioning of a Generation, rev. ed. (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007), 305–333.

8.Jodi Kim, Ends of Empire: Asian American Critique and the Cold War (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Josephine Nock-Hee Park, Cold War Friendships: Korea, Vietnam, and Asian American Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Cathy J. Schlund-Vials, War, Genocide, and Justice: Cambodian American Memory Work (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2012); Lisa Yoneyama, Cold War Ruins: Transpacific Critique of American Justice and Japanese War Crimes (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2016).

9.For Henry Sugimoto, see Kristine Kim, Henry Sugimoto: Painting an American Experience (Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday, 2000). For examples that mention Yoshiko Uchida on the wartime confinement, see David K. Yoo, Growing Up Nisei: Race, Generation, and Culture among Japanese Americans, 1924–49 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 92–93, 124; Traise Yamamoto, Masking Selves, Making Subjects: Japanese American Women, Identity, and the Body (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 102–140. Scholarship on Japan that references Hanama Tasaki includes John J. Stephan, Hawai‘i under the Rising Sun: Japan’s Plans for Conquest after Pearl Harbor (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1984), 35–36; Alvin D. Coox, “Evidences of Antimilitarism in Prewar and Wartime Japan,” Pacific Affairs 46, no. 4 (Winter 1973–1974): 502–514. For Yamaguchi Yoshiko, see Jennifer Coates, “The Shape-Shifting Diva: Yamaguchi Yoshiko and the National Body,” Journal of Japanese and Korean Cinema 6, no. 1 (2014): 23–38. Yamaguchi, however, is the only figure among the four who is still the subject of transnational-based scholarship (regarding her relationships with China and Japan).