Addams, Henry I., 158
Agriculture: class conflict in, 49–50; gender relations in, 52–53; labor problems in, 42–53. See also Class, relations, in agriculture; Family economy, in agriculture; Gender, relations of, in agriculture; Race, division of labor by, in agriculture; Tobacco cultivation
Allen, G. A., 78
Allen, T. A., 63
American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers, 153–54, 158, 159, 231 n.26. See also Hoffman, Alfred
American Federation of Labor, 154–55, 158, 165
American Tobacco Company (1890–1911): dissolution of, 71–72; farmers’ attitudes towards, 11–12, 23, 70; labor relations in, 90; number of employees of, 71; origins of, 69–71. See also American Tobacco Company (1911–); Blackwell Durham Tobacco Company; Duke, James B.; Tobacco manufacture
American Tobacco Company (1911–): anti-union strategies of, 153; formation of, 69–71; managerial practices of, 107–8, 114, 124, 153, 219 n.44; profits of, 72; sexual division of labor in, 99; workers’ attitudes towards, 124. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Blackwell Durham Tobacco Company; Duke, James B.; Tobacco manufacture
Amey, C. C., 79
Bags, tobacco, making of, 31, 38, 74, 113, 133–34, 146, 197 n.31
Bailey, Mary, 124
Baptists: attitudes towards class conflict, 88, 148; attitudes on gender, 36; attitudes on race, 47. See also Biblical Recorder
Barbee, Annie Mack, 119, 144, 147, 167, 173, 175
Barbee, Pearl (pseudonym), 64, 143, 171, 173
Benjamin, George, 168
Biblical Recorder, 47. See also Baptists
Blacks: class consciousness among, 18–20, 50–51, 53–54, 84–85, 119–21, 149–51, 161–62, 166–68, 171–74, 210 n.107, 234 nn.92, 93, 235 n.101; color consciousness among, 53–54, 84; disfranchisement of, 22–23, 92–93, 213–14 n.155, 214 n.161; economic condition of, 41–49, 50–54, 57, 66, 78–80, 102, 109–16, 167–68; education of, 39–40, 46, 64, 93, 142–43, 146; as factory workers, 95–105, 108–13, 120–25, 143–44, 167–68, 171, 173–74; housing of, 44, 129–31, 140–41; impact of race upon, 39–40, 41–42, 47–48, 92–94, 129, 139, 140–44, 155, 174–76; and Ku Klux Klan, 39–40, 92, 138, 144, 155, 173–74; reasons of, for migrating, 37, 40, 42, 48, 54–64, 66, 119; during Reconstruction, 39–40; religious activities of, 46, 48, 87–88, 127–28, 139–42, 147–48, 158, 177, 199 n.64, 200 n.75, 201 n.89, 226 n.73; in unions, 161–62, 165–68, 172. See also Civil rights, movement for; Durham Committee on Negro Affairs; Gender; Ku Klux Klan; lynching; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company; Race; Tobacco workers; Unions, black participation in; Women, racial attitudes of
Blackwell, William T., 68
Blackwell Durham Tobacco Company, 68–70; becomes American Tobacco Company, 71, 90. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); American Tobacco Company (1911–); Blackwell, William T.; Carr, Julian S.; Tobacco manufacture
Bonsack, James, 69
Bonsack cigarette-making machine, 69, 80–81, 85, 97, 118
Brookwood Labor College, 154
Buchanan, Bessie Taylor, 64, 76, 95, 126, 133, 136, 147, 148, 172, 173, 176
Butler, Marion, 22. See also People’s Party, North Carolina
Cameron, Bennehan, 44
Cameron, Duncan, 10
Cameron, Paul Carrington, 10, 52–53
Cannon, Bishop James, 87, 211 n.123. See also Methodists; Textile industry, critics of
Carmichael, W. D., 72, 86, 92, 154, 231 n.27. See also Liggett and Myers
Carolina Times, 92–93, 158. See also Austin, Louis
Carr, A. F., 164
Carr, Elias, 20. See also Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina
Carr, Julian S., 57, 65–66, 68–70, 74, 80, 87, 89, 90–92, 145, 205 n.21, 212 n.140, 213 n.147, 213–14 n.155. See also Blackwell Durham Tobacco Company; Durham, Duke-Carr rivalry in
Carr, Julian S., Jr., 65, 76, 106. See also Durham Hosiery Mills
Carr, Nannie Parrish, 89, 145. See also Carr, Julian S.; Parrish family
Carr, W. H., 86, 91. See also Durham Hosiery Mills
Carr family, 89, 99, 102, 129, 153–54, 160–61, 163, 169. See also Durham Hosiery Mills
Carter, Nellie (pseudonym), 154–55
Cash-crop economy: expansion of, 8, 10, 14–18, 24, 49; consequences of, for women, 17–18, 28–34, 50–51. See also Tenancy, causes of; Tobacco cultivation
Child labor: in agriculture, 13–14, 17, 28–29, 31, 52–53; decline of, 114, 119; in industry, 75, 80–81, 91, 95, 98, 104–5, 109–11, 113–16; reasons for, 75, 119, 145–47; in textiles, 75; in tobacco, 72–73, 80–81, 97, 98, 220 n.60. See also Family economy
Childbearing: racial differences in, 44, 132; rates of, 34–35, 127–28, 131–32; as system of reproduction, 223 nn.3, 4, 6. See also Childrearing
Childrearing, 44–45, 127–28, 131, 136–40, 142–46. See also Child labor; Family economy
Christian Advocate, 50. See also Methodists
Christian Church, 148
Civil rights, movement for, 92–93, 141, 174–75. See also Blacks; Race
Clarke, Chester, 167
Class, 5–6, 25–26, 49, 50, 54, 63, 65–67, 75, 80–81, 83–85, 88, 91, 95, 96–99, 117–18, 121–22, 125–28, 129–30, 145–46, 150, 152–53, 156, 162, 177–78, 187 nn.9, 10, 188 n.11, 189 n.14, 190 n.14, 191 n.21, 194 nn.4, 6, 195 n.10, 196 n.21, 205 n.30, 206 n.38, 217 n.32, 223 n.6, 231 nn.26, 81, 231–32 n.34, 236 n.135; consciousness of, among agriculturalists, 10, 18, 20–21, 49–51, 53–54, 75–77, 188 n.11; consciousness of, among capitalists, 67, 69–71, 75–77, 78–81, 82–89, 90–92, 97–99, 107–8, 117–18, 121–23, 148, 160–61, 164–65, 168–70, 206 n.38, 206–7 n.46, 208 n.76, 209 n.81, 210 nn.103, 107, 211 n.118, 212 n.142, 213 nn. 152, 154, 227 nn.74, 78, 228 nn.85, 86, 229 n.14, 231 nn.27, 31, 235 nn.96, 110; consciousness of, among industrial workers, 3–4, 63–64, 76–77, 80–81, 82–86, 88–89, 93–94, 97, 104, 108–9, 117–26, 145–78, 215 n.10, 215–16 n.12, 221 n.73, 226 n.73, 227 nn.74, 78, 234 nn.93, 94; interaction of, and gender, 31–34, 51–53, 97, 108–10, 149–51, 175–78, 187 n.10, 195 n.14, 197 n.28, 200 n.77, 215 n.8, 216 nn.14, 18, 219 n.48, 220 n.64, 220–21 n.64, 223 n.6; interaction of, and race, 47, 98, 109–22, 149–50, 155–59, 161–63, 165–68, 171–78, 205 n.30, 206–7 n.46, 230 nn.21, 23, 234 n.93; mobility, 12–18, 25–26, 42–43, 45, 50, 121–22, 222 n.94; relations, in agriculture, 8–23, 25–26, 49–51, 53–54, 194 nn.4, 6, 196 nn.20, 21, 199 n.53, 199–200 n.68; relations, in industry, 63, 69–70, 74–77, 80–86, 91–94, 98, 105–8, 122–26, 148–51, 153–78; religious influences on, 36, 86–88, 97–99, 139–42, 147–49, 177, 200 n.75, 201 n.89, 226 n.73, 227 n.74. See also Gender; Race; Textiles manufacture; Textile workers; Textile Workers Union of America; Tobacco manufacture; Tobacco workers; Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions; United Textile Workers; Wages and income; Women, class consciousness of; Women, as . . . workers
Coleman, W. C., 79
Coleman Mill, W. C., 79
Coley, Dena (pseudonym), 82, 136, 147, 171
Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO), 164. See also Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO)
Commonwealth Cotton Mill, 74
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 166, 175, 233–34 n.82, 234 n.93; includes Industrial Union Council, 172. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Textile Workers Union of America; Unions, in Durham
Conservative Party. See Democratic Party-
Copley, T. L., 163
Cotton textile industry. See Textiles manufacture
Cotton Textile Institute, 77
Couch, Wilma Mayfield (pseudonym), 59–60, 136, 146, 147
Cowper, Mary O., 83, 86, 151, 154, 210 n.103
Crop lien, 11, 27–28, 33, 189–90 n.5. See also Cash-crop economy; Tenancy
Crouch, E. L., 157
Daniels, Joe (pseudonym), 171
Day, James R., 68
Democratic Party: involvement of Julian S. Carr in, 90–91; as Conservative Party, 40; disfranchisement and, 22–23, 40–41, 213–14 n.155; and Knights of Labor, 19–20; and People’s Party, 21–23; use of racism to regain political power, 19–20, 22–23, 39–41, 92; and white supremacy campaign, 22–23, 92. See also Blacks; Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; People’s Party, North Carolina; Race; Republican Party
Disfranchisement. See Blacks, disfranchisement of; Democratic Party
Domestic labor. See Women, as domestic laborers
Duke, Benjamin, 68, 70, 79, 81, 83, 86–87, 89, 90, 92. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Duke & Sons Company, W.
Duke, James B., 50, 66, 68–70, 72–74, 81, 83, 145, 170. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Duke & Sons Company, W.; Tobacco manufacture
Duke, Mary (sister of James B.). See Leggett, Mary Duke
Duke, Sarah Angier (wife of Benjamin), 89, 145
Duke & Sons Company, W.: becomes Liggett and Myers, 71; capitalization of, 68; development of, 68–71; female employees in, 70–71, 80–81, 99, 105–6, 113, 153; introduction of cigarette production in, 69, 105–6; labor relations in, 69–70, 80–81, 82, 87, 97, 153; mechanization in, 69, 80–81, 85, 97, 105–6. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Duke, James B.; Liggett and Myers; Tobacco manufacture; Tobacco workers
Duke family, 65, 68, 70, 73–74, 80–81, 85, 87, 89, 90–91, 92, 97, 105, 113, 129, 213 nn.146, 147, 215–16 n.11. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Duke & Sons Company, W.; Durham, Duke-Carr rivalry in; Republican Parry
Duke Hospital, 143
Duke University, 83, 94, 173, 174
Durham (N.C.): as destination of female migrants, 55–63, 95–96; Duke-Carr rivalry in, 68–71, 74, 90–92; growth of, 68, 80; hosiery industry in, 65, 74–75; housing in, 130–31, 136; industrial development of, 5, 10–11, 57, 63, 65–67, 73–74, 95, 174; race relations in, 48, 78–80, 92–94, 129, 138, 155, 171–76; sex ratios of population, 56–57; spatial organization of, 129–31; textile industry in, 57, 65–66, 74–78, 80; tobacco industry in, 11, 57, 67–73, 97–102, 105–7, 174. See also Hosiery manufacture; Race; Textiles manufacture; Tobacco manufacture; Unions, in Durham
Durham Committee on Negro Affairs, 93, 171. See also Blacks; Durham (N.C.), race relations in; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Race
Durham Cotton Manufacturing Company, 74, 78, 88, 107, 130–31, 140, 160–61. See also Textiles manufacture
Durham Hosiery Mills: anti-union strategies of, 85, 106–7, 153–54, 158, 160, 161, 163–64; development of, 65, 74–75, 77, 79, 86, 91, 96, 98, 107, 119, 122, 130, 160–61; industrial democracy in, 76, 106; mill village of, 122, 130, 202 n.13, 216 n.14. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Carr family; Carr, Julian S., Jr.; Hosiery manufacture; Hosiery workers; Strikes, Durham Hosiery Mills
Durham Industrial Girls Club, 83, 151. See also Young Women’s Christian Association
Durham Interracial Commission, 92. See also Durham (N.C.), race relations in; Race
Durham Labor News, 172
East Durham, 87, 91, 130, 138, 140, 146, 160, 172. See also Durham (N.C.), textile industry in; Durham Cotton Manufacturing Company
Ellis family, 144
Ennis, Allie (pseudonym), 136, 143, 147
Episcopalians, 87, 148. See also Religion
Ervin, Jessie (pseudonym), 120, 156
Erwin, J. Harper, 74, 89, 160–61. See also Durham Cotton Manufacturing Company
Erwin, William A., 65, 74–78, 82, 85, 87, 89–91, 95, 105–6, 117, 122–23, 153. See also Duke, Benjamin; Durham (N.C.), textile industry in; Erwin, J. Harper; Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Holt family; Lewis, Kemp P.; Textiles manufacture; Textile workers; Unions, in Durham
Erwin Cotton Mills Company: acquired by Burlington Industries, 174; anti-union strategies of, 63, 106, 126, 153, 158, 160–61, 164–65, 168–71; development of, 4, 63–65, 74–78, 88–91, 98, 100, 106–8, 117, 123, 142, 148, 153, 164–65, 170, 171–72, 174; managerial practices in, 75–78, 81, 98, 106–10, 123, 139–40, 153, 164, 168–71, 206 n.38, 206–7 n.46, 218 n.41, 227 n.78, 228 n.86, 231 nn.27, 31; sale of mill village, 172, 202 n.113, 236 n.133; wages in, 122; workers’ attitudes towards, 82, 95, 120, 122, 124, 160, 164–65, 168–71. See also Duke family; Erwin, William A.; Lewis, Kemp P.; Powe, E. K.; Strikes, at Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Pearl Mill; Textiles manufacture; Textile workers; Textile Workers Union of America; West Durham
Evans, E. Lewis, 157–58, 159, 163, 165–68, 177, 234 n.91. See also Tobacco Workers International Union
Evans, James, 156
Fair Labor Standards Act, 134, 168
Family economy: in agriculture, 13–14, 16–18, 28–32, 35–38, 42–46, 51–53, 75, 194 n.5; as a concept, 187–88 n.10, 193 n.1, 194 nn.4, 5, 201 n.82, 215 n.8; as a factor in migration, 57–61; as a family wage-earning economy in Durham, 59–61, 74–75, 109–17, 119, 127, 142–47, 220 n.63. See also Gender
Farm laborers: availability of, 14–16, 63–64; condition of, 13–14, 38, 63–64; in Knights of Labor, 18–20; racial characteristics of, 16, 38, 47, 63–64; wages of, 13, 38; women as, 16, 38, 63–64
Farmers. See Agriculture; Cash-crop economy; Class, consciousness of, among agriculturalists; Class, relations, in agriculture; Crop-lien; Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; Tenancy; Tobacco cultivation
Farmers’ Alliance, National Colored: arrival in North Carolina, 18, 20; defeat, 21; relations with North Carolina Farmers’ Alliance, 20–21. See also Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina
Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina: aims of, 19–21; arrival in North Carolina, 18, 20; attitudes towards blacks in, 19, 41, 49, 192 nn.34, 37, 199–200 n.68; cooperatives in, 21; ideology of, 18–22, 31–32, 49–50, 188 n.11, 191 n.21, 199–200 n.68; political activities of, 21; relations with Knights of Labor, 20–21; relations with National Colored Farmers’ Alliance, 20–21; rituals of, 18; women in, 19, 31–32, 40, 49–50, 196 n.24. See also Farmers’ Alliance, National Colored; Knights of Labor; People’s Party, North Carolina
Faucette, Ella (pseudonym), 162, 173
Fisher, Reverend Mark Miles, 88, 147, 227 n.75, 228 n.89
Fitzgerald, Richard, 79
Fitzgerald, Robert, 40. See also Murray, Pauli (his granddaughter)
Franklin, Julia (pseudonym), 61
Gender, 5–6, 27–36, 51–53, 96–99, 108–10, 117–18, 128–29, 137–40, 150–51, 152, 175–76, 186 n.6, 187–88 n.10, 193 n.1, 194 n.5, 195 nn.10, 11, 14, 196 n.23, 196–97 n.25, 200 nn.77, 79, 200–201 n.81, 201 n.82, 215 n.8, 217–18 n.32, 220 n.64, 223 n.6; consciousness of, 18–19, 29–36, 38–39, 49–54, 61, 83, 86, 96–98, 108–9, 117–18, 125, 128, 135–40, 143–44, 147, 152–53, 157, 162, 175, 177–78, 196 n.24, 196–97 n.25, 221 n.73; interaction of, and class, 49–54, 97, 108–19, 149–51, 175–76, 195 nn.11, 14, 197 n.28, 220 n.62, 220–21 n.65; interaction of, and race, 46–47, 53–62, 97, 99–104, 108–17, 121–22, 138–42, 173, 175, 195 n.11, 196 n.22, 197 n.28, 197–98 n.32, 199 n.64, 200–201 n.81, 216 nn.16, 18, 217–18 n.32; relations of, in agriculture, 25–36, 51–54, 193 n.1, 194 n.5, 195 n.10, 196–97 n.25, 197 n.28; relations of, in industry, 63–64, 72–75, 88–89, 94, 96–105, 108–17, 125, 153, 157–58, 163, 165, 167–68, 173, 175–76, 205–6 n.34, 206 n.35, 207 n.48, 215 n.8, 216 nn.14, 18, 217 n.29, 217–18 n.32, 219 n.48, 225 n.37; religious attitudes towards, 36, 139–40, 197 n.27, 199 n.64, 201 n.89; and sexuality, 19, 30, 34–36, 38–39, 52, 88–89, 97–98, 108, 120, 127–28, 138–40, 197–98 n.32, 200 n.77, 201 n.89, 216 nn.14, 18, 223 nn.3, 4, 6, 224 n.33, 225–26 n.51. See also Class, interaction of, and gender; Family economy; Race; Women
Ginter cigarette company, 69. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911)
Glenn, Bonnie, 164
Golden Belt: development of, 61–62, 74, 78, 90, 96, 111, 133, 149, 158, 160, 164, 172; wages in, 111. See also Hosiery manufacture; Textiles manufacture
Goodwin, Mollie (pseudonym), 51
Goodwin cigarette company, 69. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911)
Graham, Frank Porter, 83, 86, 210 n.103, 211 n.118
Gray, Mamie (pseudonym), 45
Hagood, Margaret Jarman, 31, 50–51, 53, 196 n.22, 196–97 n.25
Hall, H. C., 123
Harris, Carl R., 165–69. See also Erwin Cotton Mills Company
Hayti, 94, 130, 138, 172. See also Durham (N.C.), spatial organization of
Hill, John Sprunt, 89, 90. See also Watts, George
Hinton, Martha (pseudonym), 140
Hoffman, Alfred, 83, 106–7, 154, 156, 159, 213 n.154, 218–19 n.42, 229–30 n.15, 231 n.26. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Piedmont Organizing Council; Strikes, in textiles; Unions, in Durham
Holt family, 74, 89. See also Erwin, William A.
Hosiery manufacture: anti-labor strategies in, 85, 106–7, 153–54, 158–60, 161, 163–64; capitalization in, 74; development of, 74–75, 77, 107, 156–57, 163–64; employment levels in, 74; managerial practices in, 65, 70, 75–76, 85, 98–99, 102–4, 106; racial division of labor in, 75, 99, 102–4; sexual division of labor in, 99–100, 102–4. See also Carr family; Durham Hosiery Mills; Golden Belt; Hosiery workers
Hosiery workers: attitudes towards employers, 96, 102–3; characteristics of, 65, 75, 99–100, 102–4, 115; conditions of, 102–4, 119; efforts to organize, 76, 85, 106–7, 149, 153–54, 159–60, 163–65; wages and income of, 111. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Hoffman, Alfred; Hosiery manufacture; Unions, in Durham; Women, as hosiery workers
Hosiery Workers, American Federation of. See American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Unions, in Durham; Unions, female participation in
Imperial Tobacco Company, 98
Income. See Erwin Cotton Mills Company, wages in; Farm laborers, wages of; Liggett and Myers, wages in; Textile workers, wages of; Tobacco workers, wages of; Wages and income, of industrial workers
Industrialization. See American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Bonsack cigarette-making machine; Child labor, in industry; Class, relations, in industry; Duke, James B.; Duke & Sons Company, W.; Durham Hosiery Mills; Durham (N.C.), industrial development of; Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Hosiery manufacture; Textiles manufacture; Tobacco manufacture
International Association of Machinists, 166
Jenkins, Louise Couch (pseudonym), 146–47
Jenks, Esther, 95, 147, 148, 165, 169–70, 171, 172
Jenks, Ethel, 169
John Swinton’s Paper, 81
Journal of United Labor, 13, 19, 81, 153. See also Knights of Labor
Kennedy, William, 82. See also North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company
Kilgo, John C., 87
Kimball cigarette company, 69. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911)
Kinney cigarette company, 69. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911)
Knights of Labor: activities of, 13, 18, 21, 85, 153, 211 n.112, 215 n.10; attacks on, 19–21, 85, 192 n.25; goals of, 19–21, 49, 191 n.21, 215–16 n.11; growth of, 18–21, 81, 85–86, 97, 105–6, 118, 153; racial policies of, 18–20, 118, 155; relations with North Carolina Farmers’ Alliance, 20–21; rituals in, 18; women in, 18–19, 40, 153, 215–16 n.11. See also Class, consciousness of, among agriculturalists; Class, consciousness of, among industrial workers; Farm laborers; Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; Race, consciousness of, among blacks; Race, consciousness of, among whites; Tobacco workers; Unions, in Durham
Knit-well Hosiery Mill, 74
Ku Klux Klan, 39–40, 92, 138, 144, 155, 173–74, 236 n.130. See also Blacks; Democratic Party; Race
Latta, Sam, 157
Lawrence, R. R., 158
League of Women Voters, 83, 86
Lewis, Cornelia Battle, 89
Lewis, John L., 165. See also Congress of Industrial Organizations
Lewis, Kemp P., 65, 76–78, 81, 83, 85–86, 89–90, 92, 100, 105–7, 122–23, 142, 145, 150, 154, 158, 160–61, 164, 167, 169, 170, 211 n.118, 231 nn.27, 31, 235 n.96. See also Erwin, William A.; Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Textiles manufacture
Lewis, Nell Battle, 83
Lewis, Richard H., 89
Liggett and Myers: anti-union strategies of, 85–86, 106–7, 159, 231 n.27; development of, 71–72, 174; employment levels in, 71; labor relations in, 157–59, 161–62, 163, 166–68, 171–78; managerial practices of, 88, 98–100, 122–23, 157, 163, 166–68, 173; mechanization of manufacturing process in, 122–23, 168, 173; origins of managers, 72, 100; origins of workers, 61–62; profits of, 72, 123; race relations in, 121, 125, 173; sexual division of labor in, 99, 168; wages in, 72, 82. See also Carmichael, W. D.; Duke & Sons Company, W.; Strikes, at Liggett and Myers; Tobacco manufacture; Tobacco workers; Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions, in Durham; Women, as tobacco factory workers
Lincoln, John (pseudonym), 82
Loman, Bertie (pseudonym), 31
Love, Hetty (pseudonym), 64, 95, 147
Lynching, 45, 47–48. See also Blacks, impact of race upon; Ku Klux Klan; Race
Mack, Charlie Decoda, 121
Mack family, 64
McKissick, Floyd, 174
Mangum family (pseudonym), 62
Marvin Carr Silk Mill, 85, 106, 153, 159. See also Durham Hosiery Mills; Hosiery manufacture; Hosiery workers; Strikes; Unions
Mebane, Mary, 119, 125, 136–37, 141, 146, 147
Mebane, Mary, 119, 125, 136–37, 141, 146, 147
Mebane, Nonnie, 108, 119, 136–37, 146
Mebane, Rufus, 108
Medlin, Rachel (pseudonym), 171
Merrick, John, 57, 66, 78–80. See also Blacks, economic condition of; North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company; Spaulding, Charles C.
Methodists: and class, 50, 87; and the Dukes, 60, 87, 211 n.120; and gender, 36; and industry, 80; and Julian S. Carr, 87; Orphanage, 60, 121, 136; and race, 7, 50
Migration: causes of, 8, 20, 24, 40–42, 48, 51, 54–67, 72, 74–75, 95–96, 119, 122; class differences in, 36–38, 57, 65–66, 68–70; familial characteristics of, 57–59, 62, 64–65, 95–96, 108–9; gender differences in, 24, 55, 67, 74–75; reverse and temporary, 62, 130, 202 n.13. See also Blacks, reasons of, for migrating; Women, reasons of, for migrating
Mize, Horace (pseudonym), 171
Monkey Bottoms, 117, 121, 129, 131, 140, 172, 225 n.38. See also Erwin Cotton Mills Company; West Durham
Monkey Top, 117. See also Erwin, William A.; Erwin Cotton Mills Company; West Durham
Moore, Aaron, 66, 79. See also North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 93. See also Civil rights, movement for; Durham Committee on Negro Affairs; Race
National Association of Manufacturers, 90
National Defense Mediation Board, 171
National Labor Relations Board, 164, 170, 171
National Negro Business League, 90
National Recovery Administration, 81, 107, 123–24, 157, 159, 172
Norman, Katherine, 149
North Carolina Federation of Women’s Clubs, 83. See also Young Women’s Christian Association
North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company, 66, 79, 84–85, 89. See also Merrick, John; Moore, Aaron; Spaulding, Charles C.
North Carolina Railroad, 10–11, 22. See also Southern Railway
Norwood, Clem, 3, 159. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Hosiery workers; Strikes
O’Daniel, John, 89, 212 n.140. See also Carr, Julian S.; Carr family; Durham Hosiery Mills
Oxford Cotton Mills, 89. See also Erwin, William A.; Lewis, Richard
Parker, W. S., 63
Parrish, Charles, 159. See also Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions, black participation in
Parrish, Edward J., 92. See also Parrish family
Parrish, Nannie. See Carr, Nannie Parrish
Paul, Hiram Voss, 79–81, 85, 211 n.112, 215–16 n.11. See also Knights of Labor
Pearl Mill, 74, 78, 172. See also Erwin Cotton Mills Company
Pearson, William G., 66, 79, 92, 213–14 n.155. See also Blacks, disfranchisement of; North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company; Republican Party
Peavey, Claiborne (pseudonym), 120
Pentacostals, 148, 227 n.74. See also Unions, religious deterrents to
People’s Party, North Carolina: attempts to fuse with Democrats, 22; establishment of, 21–22; fusion with Republicans, 21–22; ideology of, 10, 21–22, 31–32, 33–34, 41, 49–50, 191–92 n.22, 192 nn.34, 37, 199–200 n.68, 213 n.146; political activities of, 21–22. See also Democratic Party; Republican Party
Perkins, W. R., 170. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); Erwin Cotton Mills Company
Piedmont Organizing Council, 106–7, 154, 218–19 n.42, 231 n.27. See also Hoffman, Alfred
Poe, Clarence, 41. See also People’s Party, North Carolina; Progressive Farmer
Polk, Leonidias L., 20, 22. See also Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; People’s Party, North Carolina; Progressive Farmer
Populists. See People’s Party, North Carolina
Powe, E. K., 89. See also Erwin, William A.; Erwin Cotton Mills Company
Presbyterians, 87
Progressive Farmer, 20, 22, 31–33, 41, 49–50. See also Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; People’s Party, North Carolina; Poe, Clarence; Polk, Leonidias L.
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, 71, 156
Race, 5–6, 38–39, 117–18, 186–87 n.7, 187 n.9, 188–89 n.13, 189 n.14, 193 n.2, 197–98 n.32, 200 n.80, 200–201 n.81, 205 n.30, 215 n.8, 217–18 n.32, 221 nn.71, 73, 231–32 n.34, 236 n.135; consciousness of, among blacks, 5–6, 39–42, 44–46, 48, 50, 52–53, 64, 67, 80, 84, 92–94, 98, 108, 117–18, 119–20, 124–25, 129–30, 136–38, 140–44, 149, 155, 161–63, 165–67, 172–75, 177, 188 n.11, 189 n.15, 210 n.107, 214 n.161, 216 n.18, 217 n.23, 218 n.33, 224 n.28, 231–32 n.34, 234 n.93; consciousness of, among whites, 5–6, 10, 16, 18–20, 22, 31, 33, 38–42, 46–49, 52–53, 63–64, 65–66, 74–75, 84, 92–93, 96–99, 102, 117–18, 121–22, 125, 128, 140–42, 144, 149, 155, 157–59, 163, 166, 168, 171–76, 178, 188 n.11, 192 n.34, 198 n.38, 201 n.85, 206–7 n.46, 208 n.76, 209 n.81, 212 n.140, 213–14 n.155, 216 n.12, 234 n.92; division of labor by, in agriculture, 14–16, 37, 40, 43–44, 49, 52–53, 55, 190 nn.14, 15, 193 n.2, 197 n.28, 201 n.85; division of labor by, in industry, 53, 62, 66, 68, 72–76, 94–105, 107, 109–10, 112–15, 120–25, 127, 131–33, 136, 142–44, 149, 153, 161–63, 166–68, 173–77, 193 n.2, 205 n.30, 205–6 n.34, 206–7 n.46, 207 n.51, 214–15 n.7, 215 n.8, 216 n.12, 217 nn. 26, 29, 217–18 n.32, 234 n.92; relations, in rural society, 10, 13–16, 19–22, 31, 33, 39–42, 45–49, 50, 52–54, 55, 63–66, 188 n.11, 190 nn.14, 15, 192 n.34, 193 n.2, 196 n.22; relations, in urban society, 4–5, 6–7, 64–65, 66–67, 80, 83–84, 91, 92–94, 96–98, 99–100, 108–17, 121, 124–25, 127, 128–31, 135–38, 140–44, 149–50, 155–56, 159, 161–63, 166–68, 171–78, 214 n.161, 225 n.45; and religion, 47–49, 140–42, 199 nn.64, 66, 200 n.75, 201 n.89, 225–26 n.51; and sexuality, 19, 39, 40, 45, 46–47, 52–53, 88, 97–98, 108, 120, 128, 138–39, 186–87 n.7, 197 n.32, 200–201 n.81, 201 n.89, 216 nn.16, 18, 224 n.33. See also Blacks; Civil rights, movement for; Class, interaction of, and race; Gender, interaction of, and race; Ku Klux Klan; Lynching; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; Segregation; Tobacco workers; Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions, black participation in; Women, racial attitudes of
Raleigh News and Observer, 22, 47, 83. See also Daniels, Josephus
Red Shirts. See Democratic Party, and white supremacy campaign
Religion. See Baptists; Blacks, religious activities of; Class, religious influences on; Episcopalians; Gender, religious attitudes towards; Methodists; Pentacostals; Presbyterians; Race, and religion; Unions, religious deterrents to
Republican Party, 14, 19, 21–23, 39–40, 90, 92; Dukes and, 90, 213 n.146. See also Democratic Party; People’s Party, North Carolina
Riddle, Zina (pseudonym), 45
Riley, Lester, 170
Rocky Mount Cotton Mills, 89
Roosevelt, Franklin (D.), 160
Ruffin, Callie (pseudonym), 43–45
Russell, Daniel, 22, 213 n.146
Scoggins, Ada (pseudonym), 171, 173
Scoggins, Oscar (pseudonym), 171, 174
Seagrove, Mollie (pseudonym), 104
Seeman, Ernest, 106, 125–27, 129
Segregation, 4, 19, 39, 41, 45, 47, 48, 53–54, 74–75, 84, 94, 99–100, 125, 129–31, 138, 140–42, 166–67, 173, 175–77, 196 n.22, 205 n.30, 210 n.107, 217–18 n.32. See also Race
Sexual division of labor. See Gender, relations of, in agriculture; Gender, relations of, in industry
Shepard, James E., 66, 79, 88, 93, 210 n.107. See also North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company; Spaulding, Charles C.
Simmons, Furnifold, 91. See also Democratic Party, and white supremacy campaign
Southern Summer School for Women Workers, 151, 154, 156. See also Women, class consciousness of; Young Women’s Christian Association
Spaulding, Asa, 85. See also Durham Committee on Negro Affairs
Spaulding, Charles C., 57, 66, 79, 84, 87–88, 129, 150, 201 n.107. See also Durham Committee on Negro Affairs; Merrick, John; North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company
Strickland, Junius, 82, 87. See also Knights of Labor
Strikes: at Durham Hosiery Mills, 106, 153–54, 160–61, 164; at Erwin Cotton Mills Company, 3–4, 63, 106, 126, 148, 153, 158–61, 165, 168–70, 213 n.154; at Liggett and Myers, 4, 166–67, 175; in textiles, 76, 106, 156, 232 n.56. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; Congress of Industrial Organizations; Hoffman, Alfred; Piedmont Organizing Council; Textile Workers Union of America; Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions; United Textile Workers
Suitt, Oscar (pseudonym), 52
Swinton, John, 81
Taft-Hartley Act, 174
Tarboro Farmers’ Advocate, 49
Tenancy, causes of, 8–16, 18, 21, 24–26, 27, 41–42, 49, 50, 54–55, 66; as a concept, 194 n.6, 195 n.10; conditions of tenants, 14–18, 24, 28–33, 36–38, 41–44, 50–53; consequences of, for tenants, 14–18, 24–26, 196 n.20; consequences of, for women, 27–33, 36–38, 42–44, 51–55; decline of, 24; legal framework for, 11, 14, 39. See also Cash-crop economy; Class, consciousness of, among agriculturalists; Crop lien; Race, relations, in rural society; Tobacco cultivation
Textile Bulletin (originally Southern Textile Bulletin), 86, 210 n.103, 211 n.123
Textile industry, critics of, 83, 86. See also Textiles manufacture
Textile workers: attitudes of, towards employers, 76, 82, 88, 95, 98, 107, 109, 117, 119, 122–23, 124, 126, 143, 156, 164–65, 170–71; characteristics of, 65, 74–75, 82, 87–88, 98, 104, 113, 115, 125–26, 135–36, 150, 168–69, 207 n.48; class consciousness of, 117, 120, 122–24, 126, 148, 156, 159–60, 171, 173–74, 231 n.31, 232 n.56; housing of, 130–31, 140–41; wages and income of, 75, 81, 110–12, 219–20 n.54. See also Strikes, at Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Strikes, textiles; Textiles manufacture; Textile Workers Union of America; Unions, in Durham; United Textile Workers; Women, as textile workers
Textile Workers Organizing Committee. See Congress of Industrial Organizations; Textile Workers Union of America
Textile Workers Union of America, 164, 168, 170, 172, 174, 176–77, 233–34 n.82; Local 246, 168, 170, 171, 174. See also United Textile Workers
Textiles manufacture: anti-union strategies in, 76–77, 85–86, 88, 98, 105–7, 153–56, 160–61, 164–65, 168–71, 172, 174, 176, 210 n.103, 211 n.123, 212 n.142, 213 n.154, 218–19 n.42, 224 n.33, 227 nn.74, 78, 228 nn.85, 86, 231 n.31; child labor in, 57, 64, 74–76, 91, 95, 104–5, 109–11, 113–15; development of, 74–81, 106–8, 121–22, 156–57, 160–61, 164–65, 168–71, 172, 174, 206 n.38, 208 nn.68, 69, 214–15 n.7, 215 n.8; managerial practices in, 57, 65, 74–77, 88–89, 99–100, 104–8, 119, 123–24, 164–65, 208 n.63, 216 n.14, 218 n.41, 225 nn.37, 38; manufacturing processes in, 100, 104–5; origins of managers in, 65, 77, 89, 100, 206 n.38; racial policies of, 99–100, 104–5, 206–7 n.46, 207 n.51, 216 n.12; sexual division of labor in, 75, 99–100, 104–5. See also Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Golden Belt; Textile industry, critics of; Textile workers; Textile Workers Union of America; United Textile Workers
Thompson, Cyrus, 50
Thompson, Della (pseudonym), 61
Tobacco farmers. See American Tobacco Company (1890–1911), farmers’ attitudes towards; Cash crop economy, expansion of; Class, relations, in agriculture; Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina; People’s Party, North Carolina; Tenancy; Tobacco cultivation
Tobacco cultivation: allotment system in, 24; development of bright-leaf, 10–14, 23–27; labor demands of, 29; labor relations in, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24, 28–31; output per acre, 15; prices paid for product of, 11–12, 16, 21, 23–25; sexual division of labor in, 29–31, 52–53; techniques of, 10–11, 23, 29–30. See also Agriculture; Class, relations, in agriculture; Family economy, in agriculture; Farmers’ Alliance, North Carolina
Tobacco manufacture: anti-union strategies in, 69, 81, 85, 87, 88, 91, 97, 105–7, 148–49, 153, 156, 158, 162, 166–67, 174, 205 n.28, 215 n.10, 215–16 n.11, 226 nn.73, 78, 229 n.14, 231 n.27; capitalization in, 68–69; child labor in, 72–73, 81; development of, 11, 67–73, 80–81, 85, 97, 99–100, 105, 107, 118, 122–24, 153, 167–68, 174; employment levels in, 68–69, 71, 73, 107, 168, 173, 219 n.43; managerial practices in, 57, 69–70, 72–73, 83, 85, 88, 97, 105–9, 113, 118, 120–21, 122–25, 153, 162–63, 166–68, 174–76; manufacturing processes in, 62, 100–102, 105–6, 107, 122–23; origins of managers in, 68–69, 72, 100; racial division of labor in, 72–73, 94, 96–97, 99–103, 107, 112–13, 114, 121–22, 125, 163, 167–68, 173–74, 175–76; sexual division of labor in, 72–73, 99–102, 106. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); American Tobacco Company (1911–); W. Duke & Sons Company; Class, relations, in industry; Gender, relations of, in industry; Liggett and Myers; Race, division of labor by, in industry; Tobacco workers; Tobacco Workers International Union
Tobacco Plant, 80
Tobacco workers: attitudes towards employers, 80–83, 87, 118–20, 122–25, 149, 153, 162–63, 166, 171, 173, 175–76; conditions of, 69–73, 80–83, 85, 97–102, 107–8, 112–13, 118–25, 130–31, 136–37, 166–68, 171–76; housing of, 130–31; wages and income of, 72, 81–82, 110–13, 122–23, 124, 130, 135, 136, 143, 205 n.25, 223 nn.12, 15. See also American Tobacco Company (1890–1911); American Tobacco Company (1911–); Blacks, as factory workers; Class, consciousness of, among industrial workers; Class, relations, in industry; Gender, relations of, in industry; Liggett and Myers; Race, division of labor by, in industry; Tobacco manufacture; Tobacco Workers International Union; Unions, in Durham
Tobacco Workers International Union: appeals to black workers, 155, 157–59, 161–63, 165–68, 173–74, 175; appeals to women, 157, 161–63, 166–68; efforts to organize Durham workers, 106, 153, 155–56, 157–58, 161–63, 165–68, 174–78; internal conflicts in, 157–59, 161–63, 165–68, 172–77, 234 nn.91, 92, 93; Local 153, 153; Local 176, 158–59, 162–63, 166, 175–76; Local 183, 158, 162, 163, 172, 173; Local 193, 158, 162; Local 194, 158, 161, 163, 167–68; Local 204, 163, 167; Local 208, 163, 166–67, 173, 174; religious opposition to, 88, 147–48, 158, 212 n.126, 226 n.73. See also Blacks, in unions; Class, relations, in industry; Evans, E. Lewis; Strikes, at Liggett and Myers; Tobacco manufacture; Tobacco workers; Unions, black participation in; Unions, female participation in
Toms, Clinton, 72. See also Liggett and Myers
Trice, Roy, 168. See also Tobacco Workers International Union
Tri-State Tobacco Growers Association, 23–24
Turner, Delia (pseudonym), 61
Turrentine, Lacey (pseudonym), 52
Union Herald (Raleigh), 155. See also American Federation of Labor
Unions: black participation in, 4, 18–20, 88, 118, 149–50, 155–59, 161–63, 165–68, 171–78, 234 nn.92, 93; female participation in, 3–4, 18–21, 40, 49, 83, 85, 126, 148–49, 151–56, 158–65, 167–71, 173–78; in Durham, 18, 69, 81, 85–86, 88–89, 91, 93, 106–7, 118, 125–26, 148–49, 150–51, 153–78, 215 n.10, 215–16 n.11, 227 n.28, 229 n.14, 231 n.27, 234 nn.92, 93, 94, 235 n.96; religious deterrents to, 50, 87–88, 147–49, 158, 226 n.73, 227 n.74. See also American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers; American Federation of Labor; Blacks, in unions; Class, consciousness of, among industrial workers; Class, relations, in industry; Congress of Industrial Organizations; Piedmont Organizing Council; Strikes; Textile Workers Union of America; Tobacco Workers International Union; United Textile Workers
United States Children’s Bureau, child labor investigation, 32. See also Child labor
United States Industrial Commission, 70
United Textile Workers, 106–7, 154, 158–61, 174, 176, 232 n.56; Bull City Local 2155, 158–61. See also Strikes, at Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Strikes, textile; Textiles manufacture, anti-union strategies in; Textile workers; Textile Workers Union of America; Unions, in Durham
University of North Carolina, 83, 86, 89, 211 n.118. See also Graham, Frank Porter
Upchurch, Duby S., 158, 159. See also Crouch, E. L.; Evans, E. Lewis; Tobacco Workers International Union
Vickers, Mrs., 134
Wages and income: among agriculturalists, 11–13, 16–17, 20, 23–24, 33, 38, 42, 44, 195 n.10, 196 n.20; among industrial workers, 75, 81–82, 110–13, 123–24, 130, 134, 136, 143, 146, 173, 178, 205 n.25, 219–20 n.54, 223 n.15. See also Hosiery workers, wages and income of; Textile workers, wages and income of; Tobacco workers, wages and income of
Walker, A. M., 63
Watts, Garrard S., 68
Watts, George, 68, 87, 89–90. See also Duke & Sons Company, W.
Weeks, Rose (pseudonym), 64, 147, 162, 176
West Durham, 63–65, 75, 87, 91, 95, 106, 117, 119, 130–31, 138, 140, 148, 158, 160, 168, 169, 172, 173. See also Erwin Cotton Mills Company; Monkey Bottoms; Textile workers
Wheeler, John H., 85. See also Durham Committee on Negro Affairs; North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company
White, Congressman George H., 13, 40–41
White Rock Baptist Church. See Fisher, Reverend Mark Miles
White supremacy. See Democratic Party, and white supremacy campaign; Race
White Supremacy Club of West Durham, 91. See also Democratic Party, and white supremacy campaign
Whitted, Anna Ruffin (pseudonym), 48, 53. See also Ruffin, Callie (pseudonym)
Williamson, Theotis, 119, 145, 147, 173
Wilmington (N.C.) race riot, 22, 93. See also Blacks, disfranchisement of; Democratic Party, and white supremacy campaign; Race
Women: as bag makers, 31, 38, 74, 113, 133–34, 146, 197 n.31; as boardinghouse keepers, 132–33, 140; class consciousness of, 49–54, 93–94, 117–26, 129, 145–49, 151, 152–55, 159–63, 165, 167, 169–71, 173, 175, 177–78; community activities of, 46, 127–28, 141–42, 147; as domestic laborers, 38, 43–44, 53, 59, 114, 127–29, 131–38, 140; education of, 46, 54, 83, 87, 91, 95, 98, 119–20, 127, 140, 142–45, 146–47; familial relationships of, 4, 8, 13–14, 16–18, 26–38, 42–46, 51–54, 57–61, 64, 74–75, 82, 95–96, 108–12, 114–17, 119, 127–29, 131–40, 143–47, 149–50, 152–53, 162, 169–70, 172, 177–78, 186 n.6, 187 n.10, 193 n.1, 194 4n, 5n, 195 14n, 196–197, 25n, 197 28n, 220 62n; as farm laborers, 38, 45–46, 52; as heads of household, 18, 38, 42–44, 57, 59–60, 112, 119, 144, 145, 147; as hosiery workers, 96, 99, 102–4, 119, 144, 149; household labor of, 31–34, 44, 51, 134–38, 143–44; labor force participation of, 37–38, 42–44, 109–17, 131–36; as prostitutes, 128, 138; racial attitudes of, 45–49, 52–54, 120–21, 125, 128–29, 141–44, 175; reasons of, for migrating, 51, 54–57, 59–67, 95–96, 119, 125, 146; religious and moral attitudes of, 36, 47–49, 76, 98, 120–21, 127–28, 142, 147, 216 nn.14, 18, 224 n.33, 225 n.37, 225–26 n.51, 200 n.77, 200–201 n.81, 201 n.89; as textile workers, 81, 95–96, 98–99, 100, 104–5, 108–15, 120, 123–24, 135–37, 148, 150, 207 n.48; as tobacco factory workers, 51, 82, 106–7, 95, 99–102, 110–17, 119–25, 136, 146, 147, 153, 161–63, 166–68, 171, 173–78. See also Childbearing; Childrearing; Class, interaction of, and gender; Family economy; Gender; Hosiery workers; Race, consciousness of, among blacks; Race, consciousness of, among whites; Race, and sexuality; Tenancy, consequences of, for women; Textile workers; Tobacco workers; Unions, female participation in
Young Women’s Christian Association, 88, 151, 154, 158. See also Textile industry, critics of