Index
abortion rights, 31
adaptation of globally generated ideas, 59, 60, 76
administrators, 3, 16, 61; as cosmopolitan elite, 3, 54, 57, 62–78; education and training of, 19, 61, 63; indicators of empowerment used by, 19, 62; objectives and agenda set by, 13; promotions for international donations, 19; relations with government agencies, 20; research approach to, 11, 20, 22, 164–165; and staff relationship, 22, 57; and Vagina Monologues performance, 55–57
advocacy, 3, 4, 12; capabilities approach to, 12, 66, 79–95; historical aspects of, in Iran, 33, 40, 41; as national security threat, 43
Afghan-free zones, 46
Afghan immigrants, 3, 26, 44–49, 64; challenges faced by, 121; in community development course, 115, 117; definition of empowerment, 3; discrimination experienced by, 46, 47, 48, 128, 143, 164; education of, 39, 48–49; hate crimes against, 142; Islam as empowering for, 39; oppositional ethnic solidarity of, 127–128; performing middle class, 44–45, 49, 143, 146; as research participants, 164; rights of, 129; sexual assault and rape of, 65, 123, 128; sexual harassment of, 45, 128; speech and language of, 44, 45, 143; stigmatized identity of, 49, 146; undocumented status of, 17, 46; vulnerability of, 17–18, 48
agency, 11–12, 52, 66–69, 130; in community service, 115; in global women’s rights packages, 61, 68; indicators of, 66–67, 68–69, 153; and religion, 19, 51, 61, 67–69; and sexuality, 58; and tradition, 19, 61, 68–69
Ahmadinejad, Mahmood, 27, 40, 41, 88
ALLY: empowerment programs of (see empowerment programs); as fictitious name, 169n2; founder of, 1–3, 14–16; growth of, 16; hiring process in, 68; internal dynamics in, 2–3, 70; organizational structure of, 15–16; as radical, 76–77; referrals from police to, 92; research approach to, 3–4, 20–23, 163–167
Amini, Jina (Mahsa), 158–159
anti-imperialist feminism, 6, 7, 9, 10, 37, 155
anti-traditionalism, 7–8, 9, 10, 11, 63
approachability and credibility of researcher, 163–164
Article 24 of Iranian constitution, 38
Article 26 of Iranian constitution, 19
art programs, 12, 79–80, 83–84; client view of, 97, 98, 106, 108; cultural capital in, 105–106
Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 31
autonomy, 6, 7–8, 71–72, 130; and agency, 52, 66–69; indicators of, 140; liberal conception of, 157; sexual (see sexual autonomy); as value in empowerment program, 19, 66
badhejab, 53, 135, 138, 158, 170n7
Barden, Margot, 63
Behzisti (state welfare organization), 20, 82, 170ch4n1
Bell, Gertrude, 170ch2n3
Bettie, Julie, 136
bios, as qualified and proper form of life, 83, 84, 85
boundary-testing actions, 148–149
Bourdieu, Pierre, 104, 105, 136
boyfriends of clients, 68, 69, 71, 111, 124, 134
Brazil, feminist movements in, 58, 61, 99
capabilities approach, 12, 79–95, 156; in advocacy for bare life, 82–86; for gradual cultural change, 89–93; and identity politics, 85, 89, 93–95; in inaccessibility of rights, 86–89
Central Intelligence Agency, 35, 160
chador, 33, 50, 133; description of, 170n4; for meeting with Imam, 139, 140; public mocking of, 144
change, cultural, long-term approach to, 89–93
children: educational opportunities for, 46, 49, 107–108; investment in, for social change, 90, 91; labor of, 42, 92, 108, 127; marriage of, 124, 151–152; middle class, assuming equality, 149; rights of, 73, 86, 92, 127
circumcision, female, 89
class issues, 4, 5, 7, 96–115. See also middle class; deficit model in, 107, 153; intersection with gender and ethnicity (see intersectionality of gender, class, and ethnicity); and oppositional consciousness, 13, 116–130; and staff–client relationship, 13, 96–115, 116–130; in urban structure of Tehran, 24–25, 28; in volunteer work, 112–115
class mobility, 11, 13, 49, 133, 135; cultural capital for, 100, 103, 104, 107
clients, 14–16, 21, 169n1; Afghan (see Afghan immigrants); as agents of change, 91; anger and hostility of, 117, 118, 119; as bare life, 11, 81, 82–86; capabilities of, 79–95 (see also capabilities approach); class issues affecting staff relationship, 13, 96–115, 116–130; complaints of (see complaints of clients); conservative and religious, 49–51; daily commute of, 17, 18, 98; indicators of empowerment (see indicators of empowerment); Iranian, 17, 49–51, 143–144; as local subaltern, 44–54, 63; oppositional consciousness of, 13, 116–130; practical realities for, 74–75, 105, 106, 108, 112, 140; research approach to, 3–4, 20–23, 163–167; sexual autonomy of (see sexual autonomy); sexual education programs for (see sexual education programs); social abandonment of, 15, 83, 91; as stigmatized, 82–83; us versus them divide affecting, 122; in vernacularization process, 63
clothing, 31, 32–33, 44–45, 49, 50; agency in decisions on, 68, 69; chador in (see chador); consequences of choices on, 72; in gender expression, 132, 133; hejab in (see hejab); manto in, 15, 50, 140, 163, 169ch1n1; in performing middle class, 13, 104, 133, 138, 149; in resistance expression, 13, 133, 135, 138; in respectability, 138–141; in symbolic economy, 13, 133, 136, 138–141; unequal access to, 121
Collins, Patricia Hill, 166
communication skills, 101–102, 106, 112. See also speech and language
community development course, 64, 96–97; client objections to, 50–51, 96–97, 109, 112–115, 127; norms of respectability affecting project in, 137–142; privileged view in, 50–51, 116–118, 119, 127, 139–140; volunteer work required in, 113–115
complaints of clients, 3, 21–22, 98–99, 110; on art programs, 97, 106; boundary-testing actions in, 148–149; in community development class, 50–51, 96–97, 109, 112–115; expressed in meetings, 14, 15; on length of program, 110; in performing entitlement, 147–150; on religious attitudes of teachers, 50, 51, 67–68; staff response to, 98–99, 106, 110
complementarian gender roles, 9, 38
Conference of the Women of the East (1932), 32
confidentiality of research, 169n2
consciousness-raising, 18, 64–65, 69, 81; perceived as unidirectional, 156; sexual autonomy in, 70, 71; social change in, 92
consent of research participants, 165
constitution of Iran, 19, 37–38
contentious talks, 87
cosmopolitan elite, 3, 12, 54, 57, 62–78, 155
creative writing classes, 17, 105, 131–133, 134
credibility and approachability of researcher, 163–164
criminalization of premarital sexual relationships, 40–41, 71
critical mass framework, 12, 90–91
cultural capital, 12, 49, 99–100, 103–110, 136, 148
cultural poverty, 63, 124, 148, 153
culture, 8, 9, 61; and authentic reform, 3, 12, 70; of defiance among youth, 28, 51–52; ethnocentrism concerning, 155; intersection with class and ethnicity, 69–70, 125, 126, 129, 134; local norms in (see local norms); long-term approach to change in, 89–93; patriarchal attitudes in, 123–126 (see also patriarchal attitudes); reductionist explanations based on, 9, 124, 125, 126, 154, 156
dating, local norms on, 111–112
deficit model, 99–100, 107, 153
democracy, 94
Development, Crises, and Alternative Visions (Sen & Grown), 153
development programs, 129–130, 153–155, 156
discrimination, 46, 47, 48, 128, 132, 143, 164
dropout rate, 98
economic independence, 7, 32, 41, 100–101, 106
education, 17, 39, 48–49; community development course in (see community development course); as component of empowerment, 16–17, 18, 66, 107–108; in Pahlavi regime, 31, 32, 34; and resistance in middle class, 53; sexual education programs in (see sexual education programs); of staff and administrators, 18–19, 20, 50, 61, 63; as unidirectional, 156; university entrance exam in (konkoor), 121; vocational training in (see vocational training)
empowerment programs, 1–5, 16–20; administrators of (see administrators); agency in, 61, 66–69, 153; alternative models of, 154; anti-traditionalism in, 7–8, 9, 10, 11, 63; in bare life, 81, 82–86; capabilities approach in (see capabilities approach); class issues in (see class issues); clients of (see clients); communication skills in, 101–102, 106, 112; complaints in (see complaints of clients); components of, 16–17, 65; consciousness-raising in (see consciousness-raising); cosmopolitan and local elite in, 12, 62–78; cultural capital in, 12, 99–100, 105–106, 107; cultural change in, 89–93; daily commute to, 17, 18, 98; definitions of empowerment in, 3, 13, 19, 65, 66, 153, 154; dropout rate from, 98; economic independence in, 7, 100–101, 106; education in, 16–17, 18, 66, 107–108; entitlement in, 147–150, 153; family resistance to, 17, 109; glocal analysis of, 13, 55–78; government surveillance of, 3, 19–20, 43, 86–87; grassroots and local initiatives in, 154; and inaccessibility of rights, 86–89; indicators of success in (see indicators of empowerment); intentions of developers, 59; international sources of funding, 19–20, 44, 58, 59, 61; interpersonal skills in, 102–103, 104–105, 108; as justice-enhancing practice, 9, 13, 155; in liberal feminism, 152–153; local subaltern view of, 63; objectives and goals in, 64, 65, 66, 91, 100, 107, 156; performing middle class in (see performing middle class); practical realities in, 74–75, 105, 106, 108, 112, 140; and religion, 67–69, 73–74, 77–78, 155; research methods on, 3–4, 20–23, 163–167; in rural and urban areas compared, 106; sense of propriety in, 10–11; sexuality in, 19, 55–59, 62, 70–78; staff of (see staff); time required for, 12, 17, 18, 98, 101, 102, 108–110; universal frameworks for, 77; vocational training in (see vocational training)
equality, 6–7, 9, 155–156; class issues in, 123, 129; and complementarian gender roles, 9, 38; and empowerment, 3, 10, 18, 123, 129; ethnic issues in, 129; and gender oppression (see gender oppression); in global women’s rights package, 59–60; in Islamic Republic, 38, 39, 95; and patriarchal attitudes, 18, 132; and performing entitlement, 148
Esfandiari, Haleh, 41
ethical issues in research, 20–21, 22, 165–167
ethnic identity, 3, 4, 13; intersection with gender and class (see intersectionality of gender, class, and ethnicity)
face covering (rubande), 32
family, 7, 16, 17, 38; abuse and violence in, 16, 64, 71; early marriage in, 111, 112; economic independence of women from, 7, 100–101; income and labor from women needed in, 17, 18, 98, 109; patriarchal attitudes in, 123–124; religious cultural context of, 68, 72–73; resistance to ALLY program in, 17, 109; teachings in conflict with norms of, 68, 72–73
Family Protection Laws, 36, 38
Farsi, 44
femininity, 131, 132, 133, 152; middle-class respectable, 135, 144; Muslim, 138; performance of, 143, 144
feminism: anti-imperialist, 6, 7, 9, 10, 37, 155; anti-traditionalism in, 63; autonomy in, 6, 7–8; class and ethnic politics in, 4; definition of, 7, 155–156; in history of Iran, 29–41; and imperialism, 6–7, 9, 10, 36, 37, 152, 155; indigenous, 5; individualism in, 6, 7; Iranian, 135; Islamic, 8, 39, 74, 155; middle class, 135; missionary, 6, 9, 155; neoliberal, 6; secular (see secular feminism); transnational, 6–10, 11, 155; Western (see Western feminism)
Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center (hooks), 6
feminization of responsibility, 7
Ferree, Myra Marx, 77
Fluri, Jennifer, 84–85
Freire, Paulo, 3
funding, international sources of, 19–20, 44, 58, 59, 61
García Márquez, Gabriel, 51
gender: complementary roles related to, 9, 38; and identity, 131–132, 170–171n1; intersection with class and ethnicity (see intersectionality of gender, class, and ethnicity); reforms related to, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35; segregation based on, 32, 39, 48, 146; and sexual norms, 18, 34, 40–41, 62; and social problems, 124
gender justice, 12, 39, 72, 77, 155
gender oppression, 6, 7, 8, 9; class and ethnic issues in, 7, 63, 126–127, 129, 134; classroom discussions on, 132, 134; and cultural poverty, 63, 124, 153; patriarchal attitudes in, 8, 146; reductionist accounts of, 9, 124, 125, 126, 154, 156; speaking out about, 146; staff view of, 19, 78, 125; universal account of, 9, 33, 145, 149, 154
gender politics, 5, 11, 31, 38
Gilens, Martin, 94
Global South, 10, 58, 59, 61–62; misrepresentation of women in, 165; subordination of women in, 153; underage marriage in, 152
global value packages, 16, 62; women’s rights in, 12, 59–60, 61, 68, 153
Gramsci, Antonio, 43
Grown, Caren, 153
hair styles, 44, 50, 133, 136, 138, 170n6
Haraway, Donna, 167
Harris, Kevan, 52–53
Hartsock, Nancy C. M., 166
Hashemi, Manata, 135, 138, 140, 145
Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Akbar, 26–27
hate crimes, 142
Hazaras, 45
head covering (maghnaeh), 50, 170n6
health care component of empowerment program, 16, 17
hejab, 38, 68, 69, 135, 155; improper, 53, 135, 138, 158, 170n7; noncompliance with, 15, 40, 53, 159, 169ch1n1, 170n7; in norm of respectability, 138
High Council of Women’s Organizations, 35
homo sacer (“bare life”), 11, 83
homosexuality, 31, 73; and LGBTQ movement, 80, 81
Hordge-Freeman, Elizabeth, 163
housing poverty, 100
identity: of Afghan immigrants, 49; of cosmopolitan and local elite, 63; in forced unveiling, 33; gender, 131–132, 170–171n1; Iranian, 47; middle class, 12, 107; Muslim, 30; and performing entitlement, 148; relational, 7, 38, 40, 88; stigmatized, 82–83, 85
identity politics, 42, 80–82, 87; capabilities approach in, 85, 89, 93–95, 156; innominate, 81–82; universal conceptions of rights in, 81, 88
imperialism, 5, 7, 38, 47; and feminism, 6–7, 9, 10, 36, 37, 152, 155
inaccessibility of rights, 81, 86–89
India, 148
indicators of empowerment, 61, 66–69, 106–107, 136; agency, 66–67, 68–69, 153; economic independence, 7, 100–101, 106; lifestyle, 156; performing middle class, 10–11, 12, 13, 109, 140, 154; sexual autonomy, 19, 62, 70–78, 134; staff and administrator view of, 19, 62, 136
informed consent of research participants, 165
innominate identity politics, 81–82
Institutional Ethnography (Smith), 165
intellectuals, 49, 122, 134, 167
intentions in empowerment programs, 59
International Monetary Fund, 26, 27
international sources of funding, 19–20, 44, 58, 59, 61
interpersonal skills, 102–103, 104–105, 108
intersectionality of gender, class, and ethnicity, 4, 10, 149–150, 156–157; for Afghan clients, 142–143, 146; capabilities approach in, 81, 83, 85; and clients as bare life, 81, 83, 85; in forced unveiling, 33; in justice-enhancing practice, 155; for local subaltern, 63; oppositional consciousness in, 129; in performing middle class, 145–146; in power and empowerment, 13, 152–153, 154, 155; staff awareness of, 119, 125, 146; structural inequalities in, 69–70, 126, 145, 156; symbolic economies in, 49, 134, 136–137; theories of, 85; and universal conception of womanhood, 144, 145
interviews in research, 20, 21
Iran: authoritarian and democratic practices in, 94; constitution of, 19, 37–38; government restrictions on NGOs, 19–20, 41; history of, 24–41; Kurdish women in, 158–160; name changed from Persia to, 169ch2n2; nuclear program of, 28; recent violence in, 158–159; rights talk in, 40, 88, 95; sanctions of U.S. on, 27–28, 158
Iranian clients, 17, 49–51, 143–144
Iranian identity, 47
Islam: and empowerment of women, 39, 66; and feminism, 8, 38–39, 66, 74, 155; identity in, 30; universal education in, 39, 48–49
Islamic Republic: Afghan immigrants in, 44–49; education in, 39, 48–49; establishment of (1979), 26, 36–37, 45; middle class defiance and resistance in, 51–54; modernization efforts in, 53
Johnston, Hank, 87
justice, 8–9, 13; economic, 127, 144, 145, 157; and empowerment, 22; gender, 12, 39, 72, 77, 155; social, 23, 27, 157
justice-enhancing practice, 9, 13, 155
Kabeer, Naila, 7
Khatami, Mohammad Reza, 27, 39–40
Khoja-Moolji, Shenila, 66
Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah, 26, 34–35, 37–38, 170n5
Khosravi, Shahram, 28, 51–52, 133, 138, 145
Kurdish women, 158–160
labor: of children, 42, 92, 108, 127; immigrants as cheap source of, 46, 47–48; in rural areas, 25, 36; unpaid, volunteer work as, 115; of women needed in family income, 17, 18, 98, 109
Ladies’ Center, 32
Lagarde, Marcela, 58
language. See speech and language
Lareau, Annette, 149
Lawler, Stephanie, 107
legal status of immigrants, 17, 46, 83
Leve, Lauren G., 129–130
LGBTQ movement, identity politics in, 80, 81
liberal democracy, 94
liberal feminism, 5, 6, 7, 152–153; administrator commitment to, 57; agency in, 11–12, 52, 54, 69; anti-traditionalism in, 10, 11, 63; of cosmopolitan elite, 62, 70, 77; history in Iran, 29; indicators of empowerment in, 13, 19; and international funding, 19, 58, 77; response of Afghan women to, 49; sexual autonomy in, 62, 69, 70; shortcomings of, 155; staff view of, 13, 18–19, 62, 63, 146
lifestyle, 13, 133, 138; and empowerment, 156; in performing middle class, 13, 49; in symbolic economy, 13, 133, 134–137
Litwak, Robert S., 41
local elite, and cosmopolitan elite, 12, 62–78, 155
local norms, 5, 18, 72–73, 76–77; dating and marriage in, 111–112; gender and sexual, 18, 34, 40–41, 62; and global women’s rights packages, 12, 59–60; and glocal analysis, 13, 55–78; modesty in, 51, 133, 135, 138, 140; patriarchal attitudes in, 40, 123–126; and practical realities for clients, 74–75, 140; resistance and compliance decisions on, 52, 139–140, 147; of respectability (see respectability, norms of); staff grounded in, 3, 57, 61, 62, 77; and vernacularization process, 60
local subaltern, clients as, 44–54, 63
Mahdavi, Pardis, 40, 51, 81, 134, 138
makeup and appearance, 50, 133, 139, 143–144, 149
mannerisms, 10, 104, 105, 109, 145
manto (trench-coat type covering), 15, 50, 140, 163, 169ch1n1
Maoist movement, 129
marriage, 68, 69, 111–112; of children, 124, 151–152; historical aspects of, 31, 32, 33; shirbaha tradition in, 125–126, 170ch6n1
Mayorga-Gallo, Sarah, 163
McLaren, Margaret A., 9
Mehran, Golnar, 47
message framing, 60
middle class, 51–54, 107, 135, 154; femininity in, 135, 144; habitus of, 10–11, 12, 105, 141; identity in, 12, 107; performing as (see performing middle class); respectability norms in, 13, 49, 133–134, 135, 141, 144; staff in, 3, 13, 61, 62, 98–99, 108, 116–130, 137
military service, mandatory, 120–121
missionary feminism, 6, 9, 155
modernization: in Islamic Republic, 53; in Pahlavi government, 31, 33, 34, 35–36, 39
modesty, 51, 133, 135, 138, 140; and forced unveiling, 33; and sexual morality, 139; symbolic economy in, 141
Mosaddegh, Mohammad, 35
motherhood, status of, 30
Naghibi, Nima, 29
Narayan, Uma, 166
National Front, 35
National Organization of Women, 35
neocolonialism, 8
neoliberalism, 6, 7, 8, 129–130; economic policies in, 26, 27, 28, 100, 144; militaristic, effects of, 153
Nepal, 129–130
nongovernmental organizations: in Ahmadinejad presidency, 41; ALLY as (see ALLY); and cultural change, 92, 93; empowerment programs of (See empowerment programs); government restrictions on, 19–20, 41; in identity politics, 42; international sources of funding, 19–20, 41, 44, 58, 59, 61; in Khatami presidency, 40; rescue narratives of, 84–85; secular feminism in, 39; self-censorship of, 41; social services provided by, 41–42; and vernacularization process, 60
norms, local. See local norms
nuclear program, 28
Obama, Barack, 27–28
oil revenues, 25, 26, 27–28, 41
Olszewska, Zuzanna, 47–48, 51, 133, 134, 135, 138, 146
oppositional consciousness, 13, 116–130, 166
oppositional speech acts, 87
Orientalist feminist discourses, 66, 77
Page, Benjamin, 94
Pahlavi, Ashraf, 35
Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah, 25, 28, 33–36
Pahlavi, Reza Shah, 25, 31–34, 36, 160, 169ch2n2
participant observation, 21
Passionate Uprising (Mahdavi), 51
paternalism, 99
patriarchal attitudes, 8, 65–66, 123–126, 146; and femininity, 131, 132, 135; long-term cultural change in, 90, 91; organized protests against, 133; and religion, 74, 135; of staff, 18–19, 57, 76
Patriotic Women’s League, 32
Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire), 3
Pels, Dick, 167
performing entitlement, 147–150
performing middle class, 12, 13, 100–110, 132; by Afghan immigrants, 44–45, 49, 143, 146; and entitlement, 147–150; as indicator of empowerment, 10–11, 12, 13, 109, 140, 154; and private self, 141; and privilege, 142–147; respectability in, 133–134, 135, 144; secular appearance in, 133, 140, 141; symbolic economy in, 131–150
performing privilege, 142–147, 149
Persia, 29–30, 169ch2n2, 170ch2n3
Persian Pictures (Bell), 170ch2n3
political opportunity structure, 87
Portocarrero Lacayo, Ana Victoria, 58
postcolonial studies, 43–44
poverty, 6, 15, 145, 148, 153; of Afghan immigrants, 46, 64, 126; cultural, 63, 124, 148, 153; family income and labor from women needed in, 17, 18, 98, 109; housing, 100; marriage practices in, 111, 112, 126, 152; performing middle class in, 100–110; and privileged views of staff, 2, 51, 98, 120–121, 126, 127; resistance to volunteer work in, 114; and structural inequalities, 64, 66, 78, 124–125; and violence, 105, 124–125
power, 74–75, 125, 153, 154; definitions of, 13, 153; and privilege of staff, 98–99, 123; research approach to, 22, 165–167
premarital counseling, 111, 112
premarital sexual relations, 13, 40–41, 69, 71, 134–135
Prison Notebooks (Gramsci), 43
private and public self in performing middle class, 141
privilege, 36, 154; classroom activity on, 116–118, 119; performance of, 142–147, 149; research approach to, 22, 165–167; of staff, 2, 12, 13, 98–99, 106, 116–130, 137, 143, 164; of teachers, 50–51, 116–118
Rao, Vijayendra, 148
rape. See sexual assault and rape
Reader, Soran, 52
reforms: culturally authentic, 3, 12, 70; gender, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35; land, 25, 36
relational identities, 7, 38, 40, 88
religion, 8, 9, 38–39, 62; and agency, 19, 51, 61, 67–69; and conservative appearance, 50; and empowerment, 67–69, 73–74, 77–78, 155; and patriarchy, 74, 135; teacher attitudes on, 50, 51, 67–68
rescue narratives, 84–85
research methods, 3–4, 20–23, 44, 163–167, 169n2
resistant contention, 87
respectability, norms of, 13, 49, 133–134, 135; in community service project, 137–142; contradictory, 141–142; in middle class, 13, 49, 133–134, 135, 141, 144
Rethinking Global Sisterhood: Western Feminism and Iran (Naghibi), 29
revolution of 1979 in Iran, 36–37, 45, 88
rights, 42–43, 71–72, 129; of children, 73, 86, 92, 127; inaccessibility of, 81, 86–89; as national threat, 43, 87, 88; politicized rhetoric of, 87; state surveillance of movements for, 43, 87; universal conception of, 6, 54, 73, 74–75, 81, 83, 88
rights talk in Iran, 40, 88, 95
Rouhani, Hassan, 40
rural areas, 25, 36, 106, 129, 134
al-Saltaneh, Taj, 32
Sandoval, Chela, 166
Sanyal, Paromita, 148
“saving face” practices, 135–136, 138, 141, 145
scientific domesticity, 30, 31
secular feminism, 6, 7–8, 11, 155; administrator commitment to, 57; of cosmopolitan and local elite, 69–70; history in Iran, 30, 38–39; indicators of empowerment in, 19, 54; staff view of, 62, 63
secular nationalism, 30
security, national, women’s rights as threat to, 43, 87, 88
Sen, Gita, 153
sexual assault and rape, 2, 65; of Afghan women, 65, 123, 128; blaming client for, 18; in family, 64, 71
sexual autonomy, 10, 12, 54, 58, 155; in economic independence, 41; as empowerment, 19, 62, 70–78, 134; family affecting, 68, 70–73; practical implications of, 70–71, 77; in secular lifestyle, 134–135; unintended consequences of, 71–72
sexual education programs, 58, 70, 71, 78; in conflict with local norms, 73, 76; in universal framework, 77; Vagina Monologues performance in, 18, 55–57, 75
sexual harassment, 33, 45, 128
sexual relations, 13, 68, 69, 76; as expression of resistance, 13, 51–52, 134–135; local norms on, 18, 34, 40–41, 73, 76; motivations in, 69, 134–135; premarital, 13, 40–41, 69, 71, 134–135; in secular lifestyle, 134–135; stigma associated with, 82–83
Sharma, Shubhra, 59
Shia Muslims, 45
shirbaha tradition, 125–126, 170ch6n1
Smith, Dorothy, 165
social abandonment, 15, 83, 91
socialization of rebellious youth, 52
solidarity research, 165
speech and language, 101–102; of Afghan clients, 44, 45, 143; gender pronouns in, 170–171n1; in performing entitlement, 148; in performing middle class, 11, 103–105, 106, 108, 109, 132–133, 146, 149; in performing privilege, 143; as symbolic capital, 145; in writing class, 133, 134
staff, 13, 16, 18–19, 20; and administrator relationships, 22, 57; class issues affecting client relationship, 13, 96–115, 116–130; client complaints about, 21–22, 98–99; in community development class, 50–51, 112–115; concerns about government surveillance, 86, 87; definition of empowerment of, 19; indicators of empowerment used by, 19, 62, 136; as local elite, 62, 76; as locally grounded, 3, 57, 61, 62, 77; men as members of, 103, 120–121; as middle class, 3, 13, 61, 62, 98–99, 108, 116–130, 137; patriarchal attitudes of, 18–19, 57, 76; power of, 98–99, 123; as privileged, 2, 12, 13, 98–99, 106, 116–130, 137, 143, 164; research approach to, 20, 21–22, 164; secular views of, 68; sex education programs for, 55–57, 58; tensions and conflicts with clients, 2, 13, 21–22, 96–115, 116–130; us versus them divide affecting, 122; and Vagina Monologues performance, 1, 56–57
standpoint theory, 165–167
states of exception, 83
stigma: capabilities approach in, 12, 83, 85; of ethnic and national identity, 49, 83, 132, 146; identity politics in, 80, 85; of lower economic class, 25, 138, 144, 145, 146; of marginalized identity, 83, 148, 156; of social status, 82–83, 85
structural inequalities, 8, 9, 90, 124–125; in intersection of gender, class, and ethnicity, 69–70, 126, 145, 156; poverty in, 64, 66, 78, 124–125
surveillance by authorities, 43, 87, 94
symbolic economies, 13, 43, 49, 131–150, 156
teachers: client resistance to, 50–51, 96–97; of community development course, 50–51, 96–97, 112–118, 127, 139–140, 164; education of, 50; and oppositional consciousness of clients, 116–130; privileged view of, 50–51, 116–118; on religious beliefs, 50, 51, 67–68; research approach to, 164
Tehran: class divisions in, 24–25, 28; history of, 24–25, 30, 32; indicators of empowerment in, 106; liberal and secular feminism in, 69; location of ALLY in, 1, 18, 25, 43, 44, 163; middle class in, 44–45, 134, 138, 143; migration to, 25, 26, 44; research approach in, 3–4, 20–23, 44, 163–167; respectability norms in, 133–134, 144, 146; response to sexual education in, 56, 70–71; slum areas of, 25, 43; staff of ALLY from, 67, 118, 122; upper class in, 25–26, 28, 30, 41; urban culture in, 24–25; youth culture in, 28, 51–52, 133
time required for empowerment program, 12, 17, 18, 98, 101, 102, 108–110
tokenism, 35–36
tradition, 19, 61, 68–69; and anti-traditionalism, 7–8, 9, 10, 11, 63
translation of globally generated ideas, 59, 60–61, 62, 72, 156
transnational feminism, 6–10, 11, 155
travel time in commuting, 18
Tudeh Party, 34
undocumented status of immigrants, 17, 46, 83
United Nations, 16, 35, 151–152, 153
United States, 6, 35, 41, 45; as oligarchical political system, 94; rhetorical war on Iran, 43, 87–88; sanctions on Iran, 27–28, 158
universalism and universal features: in forced unveiling, 33; in gender oppression, 9, 33, 145, 149, 154; in human rights, 6, 54, 73, 74–75, 81, 83, 88; in identity politics, 81, 88; and imperialism, 6, 29; in liberal and secular feminism, 69, 155; in nonideal approach, 9, 155; in sexuality, 58, 59, 77; in standpoint theory, 166; in suffering, 122; in womanhood conceptions, 33, 144, 145
The Vagina Monologues, 1, 18, 55–57, 60, 75
veil use, 29, 30, 31, 37, 135, 170ch2n3; and forced unveiling, 32, 33, 37
vernacularization process, 60–61, 62, 63
violence: Afghan immigrants experiencing, 46, 64, 65, 128, 142; and bare life, 11, 83; in family, 16; in Kurdish region, 158–159; in patriarchal culture, 124; in poverty, 105, 124–125
virginity, value placed on, 69, 73, 135
vocational training, 16–17, 63–65, 103–110; client view of, 97–98; communication skills in, 101–102; economic independence as objective of, 7, 100–101; interpersonal skills in, 102–103
volunteer work as course requirement, 113–115
Wardlow, Holly, 140
Wedeen, Lisa, 94
Western culture, 8, 10, 29–30, 47, 155; lifestyle in, 13, 53, 134, 145; in performing middle class, 134, 135; youth adopting, 28–29
Western feminism, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8–9; history in Iran, 30, 36–37, 88; marginalizing effects of, 5; sexuality in, 57, 58–59
Westernization, 3, 25–26, 28–29, 37; in Pahlavi regimen, 31, 33, 36–37
Woman, Life, Freedom (“Jin, Jiyan, Azadi”), 159, 160
Women’s Council, 34
Women’s Organization of Iran, 35–36, 37
Women’s Party, 34
working class, 107, 134, 144; “saving face” practices of, 135–136, 138, 145
World Bank, 16
writing classes, 17, 105, 131–133, 134
Yemen, 94
Young and Defiant in Tehran (Khosravi), 51–52
Zhenotdel (organization for women), 31