NOTES

File references in the notes are preceded by a notation indicating the archival source. These notations are as follows:

INTRODUCTION

1. Arthur Tuden and Leonard Plotnicov, eds., Social Stratification in Africa (London, 1970); P. L. van den Berghe, ed., Africa: Social Problems of Change and Conflict (San Francisco, 1965), p. 348; P. C. Lloyd, The New Elites of Tropical Africa (Oxford, 1966); J. Clyde Mitchell, ed., Social Networks in Urban Situations (Manchester, 1969).

2. William Elkan, Migrants and Proletarians (Oxford, 1960); H. Jack and Ray Simons, Class and Colour in South Africa (Harmondsworth, England, 1969), p. 616.

3. R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen, eds., The Development of an African Working Class (London, 1975); Peter C. W. Gutkind, Robin Cohen, and Jean Copans, eds., African Labor History (Beverly Hills, California, 1978); Richard Jeffries, Class, Power and Ideology in Ghana: The Railwaymen of Sekondi (Cambridge, England, 1978).

4. Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979); Robert H. Davies, Capital, State and White Labour in South Africa (Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1979).

5. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963), pp. 8–10; G. Carchedi, “On the Economic Identification of the New Middle Class,” Economy and Society 4, no. 1 (1975); N. Poulantzas, Classes in Contemporary Capitalism (London, 1975).

6. Some well-known advocates of this approach are: Thompson, English Working Class; István Mészáros, ed., Aspects of History and Class Consciousness (London, 1971); Gareth Steadman Jones, “Working-Class Culture and Working-Class Politics in London, 1870–1900: Notes on the Remaking of a Working Class,” Journal of Social History 7, no. 4 (Summer 1974): 498; Michael Mann, Consciousness and Action Among the Western Working Class (New York, 1973), p. 13; Anthony Giddens, The Class Structure of the Advanced Societies (London, 1973), p. 103.

7. Elena L. Berger, Labour, Race and Colonial Rule (Oxford, 1974); Ian Henderson, “Labour and Politics in Northern Rhodesia, 1900–1953: A Study in the Limits of Colonial Power” (Ph.D. diss., University of Edinburgh, 1973); A. L. Epstein, Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester, England, 1958); J. Clyde Mitchell, The Kalela Dance, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper No. 27 (Lusaka, 1957).

8. In contrast Perrings focuses on “the objective basis of proletarianization . . . and not the consciousness that transforms the worker from rightless proletarian to the lever of social change.” In an otherwise excellent study, Perrings too readily equates class membership with consciousness and behavior. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 3–4.

9. Lukács argues that the proletariat has to struggle against itself as well as other classes and that this internal struggle obscures real class interests, thus leading to false consciousness. He predicted that “the proletariat will only have won the real victory when it has overcome these effects within itself.” Georg Lukács, History and Class Consciousness (London, 1971), pp. 70, 80.

10. K. Marx and F. Engles, On Britain (Moscow, 1953); V. I. Lenin, Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism (Moscow, 1968) and What Is To Be Done? (Moscow, 1969).

11. Joseph Femia, “Hegemony and Consciousness in the Thought of Antonio Gramsci,” Political Studies 23, no. 1 (March 1975): 38; Chantel Mouffe, Gramsci and Marxist Theory (London, 1979). Ideology is “a set of ideas or beliefs or attitudes characteristic of a group”; John Plamenatz, Ideology (New York, 1970), p. 16.

12. Geoffrey Crossick, “The Labour Aristocracy and Its Values: A Study of Mid-Victorian Kentish London,” Victorian Studies 19, no. 3 (March 1976); David Lockwood, “The Weakest Link in the Chain? Some Comments on the Marxist Theory of Action,” in Richard L. Simpson and Ida Harper Simpson, eds., Research in the Sociology of Work (Greenwich, Connecticut, 1981), vol. 1.

13. Poulantzas, Contemporary Capitalism, p. 14. Poulantzas defines class struggle as “the antagonistic contradictory quality of the social relations which comprise the social division of labor.”

14. Ibid., Introduction. Productive labor produces surplus value and is directly involved in material production.

15. David Stark, “Class Struggle and the Transformation of the Labor Process,” Theory and Society 9 (1980); E. P. Thompson, “18th-Century English Society: Class Struggle Without Class?” Social History 3, no. 2 (1979); Jones, “Working-Class Culture.”

16. Richard Johnson, “Three Problematics: Elements of a Theory of Working-Class Culture,” in J. Clarke, C. Critcher and R. Johnson, eds., Working-Class Culture (New York, 1979).

17. Wright points out that some positions in the class structures have objectively contradictory locations within class relations. Erik Olin Wright, “Class Boundaries in Advanced Capitalist Societies,” New Left Review 98 (July–August 1976).

18. Mann, Consciousness, p. 13; Giddens, Class Structure, p. 103; Paul M. Lubeck, “Class Formation at the Periphery: Class Consciousness and Islamic Nationalism among Nigerian Workers,” in Simpson and Simpson, The Sociology of Work, pp. 52–53.

19. Stark, “Class Struggle”; Terry Johnson, “What Is to Be Known? The Structural Determination of Social class,” Economy and Society 6, no. 2 (May 1977).

20. Poulantzas, Contemporary Capitalism, pp. 24–25; idem, “The Capitalist State: A Reply to Miliband and Laclau,” New Left Review 95 (January–February 1976).

21. Ralph Miliband, Marxism and Politics (Oxford, 1977).

22. Johnson, “Three Problematics,” pp. 234, 236–37.

23. Gavin Kitching, Class and Economic Change in Kenya (New Haven, 1980); Davies, Capital, State and White Labour.

24. B.J. Berman and J. M. Lonsdale, “Crises of Accumulation, Coercion and the Colonial State: The Development of the Labor Control System in Kenya, 1919–1929,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 14, no. 1 (1980); Michael Burawoy, “The Hidden Abode of Underdevelopment: Labor Process and the State in Zambia,” Politics and Society 11, no. 2 (1982): 196.

25. Burawoy, “Hidden Abode,” pp. 161–63; Ken Good, “Settler Colonialism: Economic Development and Class Formation,” Journal of Modern African Studies 14, no. 4 (1976).

26. Kitching, Change in Kenya, p. 455. Kitching cites the following examples: “Peter C. W. Gutkind and Peter Waterman, African Social Studies: A Radical Reader (London, 1977), especially pp. 226–94; also nearly all the work of Cliffe, Saul and Arrighi and others in the early ‘Dar es Salaam School’, a representative selection of which is found in G. Arrighi and J. S. Saul (eds.), Essays on the Political Economy of Africa (New York, 1973). See also Issa Shivji, Class Struggles in Tanzania (London, 1976); and M. Mamdani, Politics and Class Formation in Uganda (London, 1976). For a wider range of literature on Central and West Africa see my ‘Concept of Class and the Study of Africa’, The African Review, no. 3, 1972, pp. 237–50, an article which itself exemplifies this confusion perfectly.”

27. Most scholars of the African working class define proletarians as persons solely dependent upon wage labor for their livelihood. Peace disagrees, claiming that “once a worker enters the factory floor he is ‘proletarianised’.” Adrian Peace, “The Lagos Proletariat: Labour Aristocrats or Populist Militants?” in Sandbrook and Cohen, African Working Class, p. 284.

28. Mann, Consciousness, p. 51.

29. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1963), p. 88; John Saul, “The ‘Labour Aristocracy’: Thesis Reconsidered,” in Sandbrook and Cohen, African Working Class. Fanon includes all proletarianized workers in Africa in the labor aristocracy. Others tend to limit the definition to the more highly paid and skilled sectors of African workers. For more discussion, see P. Waterman, “The ‘Labour Aristocracy’ in Africa: Introduction to a Debate,” Development and Change 6, no. 3 (July 1975).

30. Adrian Peace, “Industrial Protest in Nigeria,” in Emanuel de Kadt and Gavin Williams, eds., Sociology and Development (London, 1974), p. 142.

31. Robin Cohen, “From Peasants to Workers in Africa,” in Peter C. W. Gutkind and I. Wallerstein, eds., The Political Economy of Contemporary Africa (London, 1976), p. 162.

32. Arnold Hughes and Robin Cohen, “An Emerging Nigerian Working Class: The Lagos Experience, 1897–1939,” in Gutkind, Cohen, and Copans, African Labor History, p. 51.

33. Richard Moorsom, “Underdevelopment, Contract Labor and Worker Consciousness in Namibia, 1915–1972,” Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS) 4 no. 1 (October 1977); Charles van Onselen, “Worker Consciousness in Black Miners: Southern Rhodesia, 1900–1920,” Journal of African History 14, no. 2 (1973): 254; Ian Phimister, “African Worker Consciousness: Origins and Aspects to 1953,” in I. R. Phimister and C. van Onselen, Studies in the History of African Mine Labour in Colonial Zimbabwe (Salisbury, 1978), p. 29.

34. T. Adler, ed., Perspectives on South Africa (Johannesburg, 1977); David Hemson, “Dock Workers, Labour Circulation and Class Struggles in Durban, 1940–59,” JSAS 4, no. 1 (October 1977); Sandbrook and Cohen, African Working Class; and Gutkind, Cohen, and Copans, African Labor History.

35. Previous work focused on the growth and organizational character of trade unions, their success in wage-bargaining, and their relationship with political parties and governments. E.J. Berg and J. Butler, “Trade Unions,” in J. S. Coleman and C. G. Rosberg, eds., Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa (Los Angeles, 1964).

36. Paul Lubeck, “Unions, Workers and Consciousness in Kano, Nigeria: A View from Below,” and Adrian Peace, “The Lagos Proletariat,” in Sandbrook and Cohen, African Working Class; Introduction and Sharon Stichter, “Trade Unionism in Kenya, 1947–1952: The Militant Phase,” in Gutkind, Cohen, and Copans, African Labor History.

37. Lubeck, “Unions, Workers and Consciousness,” p. 156.

CHAPTER 1

1. D. Hywell Davies, Zambia in Maps (London, 1971), pp. 10–11.

2. J. F. Holleman and S. Biesheuvel, White Mineworkers in Northern Rhodesia (Cambridge, England, 1973), p. 25; Richard Hall, Zambia (London, 1965), Chaps. 1 and 8.

3. Davies, Maps, p. 44; Hall, Zambia, p. 313, Appendix IV.

4. H. W. Langworthy, Zambia Before 1890 (London, 1972).

5. Andrew Roberts, A History of Zambia (New York, 1976), p. 182.

6. Ibid., p. 212; Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974), Appendix D.

7. Roberts, Zambia, pp. 212–18.

8. For further details see Roberts, Zambia or Carolyn Baylies, “The State and Class Formation in Zambia” (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, 1978).

9. Edmund Davis, born in Tuorak, Australia, 1862, was one of the first speculators for gold at Johannesburg and a friend of Cecil Rhodes. Davis became “the driving force of some 50 companies” in the city. In 1925 he became a board member of the British South Africa Company, and in 1928 of the Anglo-American Company. Died 20 February 1939. The London Times, 21 February 1939.

10. Michael Gelfand, Northern Rhodesia in the Days of the Charter (Oxford, 1961), p. 124; Kenneth Bradley, Copper Venture: The Discovery and Development of Roan Antelope and Mufulira (London, 1952), p. 57; F. L. Coleman, The Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt 1899–1962: Technological Development up to the End of the Central African Federation (Manchester, 1971), p. 15. The first orebodies found in Northern Rhodesia had been copper oxide ores with 3.5% copper, as opposed to 15% in the Katanga ore.

11. Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875–1968) was an American consulting engineer and assistant general manager of the Guggenheim Exploration Company. He started the pour-free copper method and became interested in Northern Rhodesia through a friend. After moving to England, he established the Selection Trust Ltd. in December 1914 and was knighted in 1956.

12. Coleman, Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt, pp. 32–33, 44–45.

13. Sir Ernest O. Oppenheimer (1880–1957) formed the Anglo-American Company of South Africa Ltd. in September 1917 and was knighted in 1921. He became chairman of DeBeers, the South American diamond company, in 1929. He had important interests in the Rand gold mining industry, and helped develop the Orange Free State gold fields.

14. By the end of 1925, Anglo-American had acquired interests in all the concession companies and had become consulting engineers to them and the British South Africa Company. Coleman, Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt, p. 43; Simon Cunningham, The Copper Industry in Zambia: Foreign Mining Companies in a Developing Country (New York, 1981).

15. Bradley, Copper Venture, pp. 82–83; Raymond Brooks, “How the Rhodesian Coppers Were Found,” Engineering and Mining Journal (May 1944), p. 81.

16. Prosser Gifford, “The Framework for a Nation: An Economic and Social History of Northern Rhodesia from 1914 to 1939” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1964), p. 241; Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining and Management (Tucson, Arizona, 1978), Chaps. 11 and 23.

17. American Metal Company sent Otto Sussman to investigate an old South African copper mine. Sussman visited Northern Rhodesia and advised the company to invest there. As a result, American Metal swapped 20% of its shares to Selection Trust for its holdings in RST. John Payne, Jr., interview in Old Lyme, Connecticut, 13 July 1981; Walter Hochschild to L. H. Gann, cited in Gifford, “Framework,” p. 229. Hochschild and his brother Harold were chairmen of American Metal Company (later AMAX when American Metal and Metal Climax merged in 1957). Harold was particularly interested in Northern Rhodesia and made numerous visits there.

18. Sir Ronald Prain, Reflections on an Era (Surrey, England, 1981), p. 27; Erwin Weill, interview in New York, 15 July 1981. Former secretary of American Metal, Weill emphasized Harold Hochschild’s role in securing African advancement on the mines in the 1950s.

19. Theodore Gregory, Ernest Oppenheimer and the Economic Development of Southern Africa (Oxford, 1962), pp. 416–17.

20. Sir Auckland Geddes (1879–1954) was a medical doctor. In 1919–20 he was President of the Board of Trade and Principal of McGill University. In 1920 he was appointed British Ambassador in Washington. He was chairman of Rio Tinto from 1923 and chairman of Rhokana Corp. after January 1931.

21. Leslie Pollak (died 1934) was E. Oppenheimer’s brother-in-law and business associate. In 1927 he was made managing director for Rhodesian Anglo-American. S. S. Taylor was the second managing director for RAA in 1930. In 1931 he became managing director for RAA and in 1934 he became RAA’s chief spokesman in London. He was a London director for DeBeers.

22. Roberts, Zambia, p. 186; Gregory, Oppenheimer, pp. 31, 404–15.

23. L. H. Gann, A History of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1964), p. 251; Charles Perrings, “Black Labour in the Copper Mines of Northern Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo 1911–1941” (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1976), p. 280; Navin, Copper Mining, Chap. 12

24. Gifford, “Framework,” p. 256; Report on the Copper Industry, U.S. Federal Trade Commission (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1947), pp. 108–09; O. C. Herfindahl, Copper Costs and Prices: 1870–1957 (Baltimore, 1959), p. 174, Table 14. A long ton equals 2,240 lbs.

25. Gregory, Oppenheimer, pp. 442–43; Rhokana Corporation, Annual Report, 1935; Roan Antelope Copper Mine, Annual Report, 1935.

26. American Metal Company, Annual Report, 1934; Rhokana Corporation, Annual Report, 1933.

27. The free world is the world minus U.S.S.R. and Yugoslavia. W. J. Barber, The Economy of British Central Africa (Stanford, 1961), p. 127, Table 11.

28. Gifford, “Framework,” pp. 258–62; Herfindahl, Copper Costs, p. 112.

29. A. Pim and S. Milligan, Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Financial and Economic Position of Northern Rhodesia (Colonial No. 145 of 1938), p. 20 (The Pim Report); Robert E. Baldwin, Economic Development and Export Growth: A Study of Northern Rhodesia (Los Angeles, 1966), p. 33.

30. SEC/MG/44, Commissioner for the Mines to the Chief Secretary (CS), 14 December 1946.

31. Perrings, “Black Labour,” p. 321; Baldwin, Economic Development, pp. 32–33.

32. The Economist (1941–45); Northern Rhodesia Chamber of Mines Year Book (Kitwe, 1956), p. 60.

33. Sir. R. L. Prain, “Copper Pricing Systems: Address to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation,” in Prain, Selected Papers, 1958–60 (London, 1961), vol. 2, pp. 34–35.

34. Baldwin, Economic Development, p. 33. CISB, 100:30:20, Chronological List of Events, submitted by the mining companies to the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Unrest in the Mining Industry in Northern Rhodesia in Recent Months (Lusaka, 1956) (The Branigan Commission); the commission report is The Branigan Commision Report.

35. Berger, Labour, p. 6; American Metals Company, Ltd., AnnualReport, 1935 and 1937; R. J. B. Moore, evidence presented to The Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Disturbances on the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1935), Cmd. 5009, p. 744 (The Russell Commission).

36. Eric C. Bromwich, “African Advancement,” RST mimeograph, 5 February 1962.

37. In 1957 copper was £181 per ton; Northern Rhodesia Chamber of Mines Book 1957 (Kitwe, 1957). Profit for the four mines was £15 million in 1958 as compared to £41.2 million in 1956; annual company reports in The Economist, 1956–58.

38. The Central African Examiner, 13 August 1960.

39. Hall, Zambia, p. 265.

40. For more details on nationalization of the industry see Marcia Burdette, “The Dynamics of Nationalization Between Multinational Corporations and Peripheral States” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1979).

41. In 1928, Sussman and Field never mentioned the cheap labor available in Northern Rhodesia as a reason for entering the Northern Rhodesian copper field. Cunningham, Copper Industry, p. 126; Payne interview (see note 17).

42. Epstein, Politics, p. 63.

43. RCM/CSD/RACM c.201.3.3(R11): Memorandum on the classification of native labor, 8 January 1941.

44. A. L. Epstein, Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester, 1958), pp. 15–16.

45. The Branigan Commission Report, pp. 16–17.

46. Berger, Labour, p. 220; Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Mining Industry in Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1962), pp. 19–20, 22 (The Morison Report).

47. Baldwin, Economic Development, p. 36.

48. After the war a new double taxation agreement allowed the Northern Rhodesian Government to retain income taxes from the mining companies to the fullest extent of the Northern Rhodesian rate (7/6 in the £); only the balance due at the higher British rate went to the United Kingdom. The Pim Report, pp. 134–35.

49. Berger, Labour, pp. 8–10.

50. The British South Africa Company royalties were a large drain on Northern Rhodesian revenues. After prolonged pressure from the Legislative Council, in 1950 the Company agreed to give the territorial government one-fifth of their royalties. In return, the Company’s mineral rights were confirmed until 1986. The Company still made handsome profits, with total payments of £160 million by 1963. The Northern Rhodesia Chamber of Mines Year Books 1955–63; Garry Allighan, The Welensky Story (Cape Town, 1962), pp. 161–86.

51. Baylies, “Class Formation,” pp. 95–96.

52. Ann Seidman, “The Economics of Eliminating Rural Poverty,” in Robin Palmer and Neil Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Los Angeles, 1977), pp. 412–15; Baldwin, Economic Development, pp. 193–95.

53. Robert Rotberg, Black Heart: Gore-Browne and the Politics of Multiracial Zambia (Los Angeles, 1977); T. Ranger, “Making Northern Rhodesia Imperial: Variations on a Royal Theme, 1924–1938,” African Affairs 79, no. 316 (July 1980): 351. For example, Governor Stanley in 1924 apologized for “the uncouthness of the settlers.”

54. Doris J. Dodge, Agricultural Policy and Performance in Zambia (Berkeley, 1977), pp. 6–9.

55. Maud Muntemba, “Thwarted Development: A Case Study of Economic Change in Kabwe Rural District of Zambia, 1902–70,” in Palmer and Parsons, Roots, pp. 351–61; Terence Ranger, “Growing from the Roots: Reflections on Peasant Research in Central and Southern Africa,” JSAS 5, no. 1 (1979).

56. Ranger points out that “because of the minimal demands it made on its subjects, the colonial administration did not need to foster any very strong or elaborate ideology. It did not have opportunities to do this anyway. What was required was the idea of a benevolent Imperial Monarchy, which succeeded till the late 1940s.” Ranger, “Northern Rhodesia,” p. 350.

57. “In 1929–30, the revenue from Africans was £125,270, about one-fifth of the total revenue. Direct expenditure on services for Africans in the same year amounted to £12,028, with a further £11,471 at headquarters—altogether a very small proportion of the total government expenditure of £554,527.” Colonial Office (CO.) 795/47/36150: Governor Maxwell to Secretary of State for the Colonies, 24 April 1931.

58. George Chauncy, Jr., “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in Zambian Copperbelt, 1927–1953,” JSAS 7, no. 2 (April 1981); Baldwin, Economic Development, pp. 86–93; Helmuth Heisler, Urbanisation and the Government of Migration (London, 1974).

59. Ranger, “Northern Rhodesia”; Robert Rotberg, “Race Relations and Politics in Colonial Zambia: The Elwell Incident,” Race 7, no. 7 (July 1965).

60. D. D. Keet, “The African Representative Council 1946–1958: A Focus on African Political Leadership and Politics in Northern Rhodesia,” (M.A. thesis, University of Zambia, 1975).

61. Baylies, “Class Formation,” Chap. 5; Ken Good, “Settler Colonialism: Economic Development and Class Formation, “Journal of Modern African Studies 14, no.4 (1976).

CHAPTER 2

1. Frederick Johnstone, “Class Conflict and Colour Bars in the South African Mining Industry,” Institute of Commonwealth Studies, Collected Seminar Papers, No. 10 (London, 1970).

2. Charles van Onselen, Chibaro: African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia 1900–1933 (London, 1976); John Rex, “The Compound, The Reserve, and The Urban Location: The Essential Institutions of Southern African Labour Exploitation,” South African Labour Bulletin (SALB) 1, no. 4 (July 1974): 4–17; Sean Moroney, “The Development of the Compound as a Mechanism of Worker Control,” SALB 4, no. 3 (May 1978).

3. Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979), pp. 110–11. A stope is any underground production chamber.

4. ZA/7/1/14/7, Provincial Commissioner, Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 1931.

5. L. H. Gann, A History of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1964), p. 209.

6. Ibid., p. 209; ZA1/9/18/49/1, J. W. S. Home, Acting Secretary for Native Affairs to Chief Secretary, 18 May 1931.

7. ZA/7/1/12/7, Provincial Commissioner, Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 1929.

8. CBM Box 1211, Sydney Ball (UMHK mining engineer) to B. Willis of Stanford University, 22 October 1930.

9. RCM/CSD/KHB41, general manager MCM to RST, 30 January 1930.

10. van Onselen, Chibaro, pp. 115–41.

11. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 27–28; Charles Coulter, “The Sociological Problem,” in J. Merle Davis, ed., Modern Industry and the African (London, 1933), p. 53; Bruce Fetter, The Creation of Elisabethville (Stanford, 1976), p. 129.

12. Northern Rhodesia, Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1930.

13. van Onselen, Chibaro, pp. 115–41; Alfred Mwalwanda, interview in Luanshya, 13 September 1976; Perrings, Black Mineworkers, Chaps. 1 and 5.

14. C. F. Spearpoint, “The African Native and the Rhodesia Copper Mines,” Supplement to the Journal of the Royal African Society 36, no. 144 (July 1937): 7–8, 10.

15. A. Pim and S. Milligan, Report of the Commission to Enquire into the Financial and Economic Position of Northern Rhodesia (Colonial No. 145 of 1938) (The Pim Report).

16. J. L. Vellut, “Rural Poverty in Western Sheba c. 1890–1930,” in R. Palmer and N. Parsons, eds., The Roots of Rural Poverty in Central and Southern Africa (Los Angeles, 1977), p. 334; Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 88–89; ZA1/9/18/43/1, J. Moffat Thomson, SNA, to Chief Secretary, 23 September 1929.

17. RCM/CSD/WMA 65(205.5), Spearpoint to general manager RACM, 16 November 1938; Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1930.

18. The mines saved from £3 to £4 per voluntary worker. Robert E. Baldwin, Economic Development and Export Growth: A Study of Northern Rhodesia (Los Angeles, 1966), p. 85.

19. In 1932, only 10,492 men out of 30,000 were recruited. ZA1/9/18/36/2, Thomson to Provincial Commissioner, Kasama, 2 April 1931.

20. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 90–93; Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 53.

21. Theodore Gregory, Ernest Oppenheimer and the Economic Development of Southern Africa (Oxford, 1962), pp. 442–45; Prosser Gifford, “The Framework for a Nation: An Economic and Social History of Northern Rhodesia from 1914 to 1939” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1964), pp. 258–62.

22. Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 60.

23. RCM/CSD/WMA 19, C. F. Spearpoint, compound manager, to F. Ayer, general manager, RACM, 16 September 1936; NCCM/CSD, L. A. Pollack, Report, 4 July 1929.

24. Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1931; RCM/CSD/WMA 3, general manager, RACM to RACM, London, 4 January and 1 February 1930.

25. RCM/CSD/KHB41, RST, London, to general manager MCM, 30 January 1930; Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1931.

26. RCM/CSD/W(2)HA 58, L. Eaton, “Report,” October 1929.

27. ZA1/9/18/34/1, H. Y. Willis, “Report on Rhodesian Natives in Katanga,” 31 December 1931; Willis was British Vice-Consul in Elisabethville. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 8.

28. RCM/CSD/KHB41, E. E. Barker to A. D. Storke, 27 November 1929.

29. Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1929; RCM/CSD/KMA 18, Report on African earnings per shift, all mines, 1930–48.

30. To cope with Copperbelt competition, UMHK introduced a separate, and higher, wage scale for experienced Northern Rhodesians. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 88–89; PRO/CO/795/18/18254, 1926 Native Reserves Commission, evidence of H. E. Scott, I, 206, and delegates from the Broken Hill Mining Conference, Exhibit 5, IV.

31. Northern Rhodesians working at UMHK were paid in British sterling which kept pace with the falling value of the franc. In 1926, Northern Rhodesian wages were worth twice the real wage of a Congolese working at UMHK. Consequently, after the fall of the franc in 1927, the cost of Northern Rhodesian labor in Katanga rose. This was a factor pushing UMHK towards stabilization. Fetter, Elisabethville, p. 85.

32. In 1932, Roan’s married miners worked on average 20.25 months, while single men stayed 9.79 months. Nkana averaged 12.9 months for married workers and 8.6 months for single men. Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 61.

33. In 1936, the Roan compound manager said he needed 30% of the black work force working longer than 18 months. In contrast, the Rhokana compound manager only needed 16%. RCM/CSD/WMA 139, Spearpoint to Frank Ayer, 16 November 1936. Rhokana Corporation, notes for NILAB meeting, 11 February 1937.

34. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 54. Many couples were not formally married; for statistical purposes they will be treated as married. George Chauncy, Jr., “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927–1953,” JSAS 7, no. 2 (April 1981).

35. David Irwin, “Notes for a Talk Given to the RST Group Executive Gathering, Lusaka, 25–26 September 1959,” University of Wyoming Archives.

36. John Payne, Jr., interview in Old Lyme, Connecticut, 13 July 1981. “In the fall of 1928, Luanshya consisted of eight or ten Kimberley brick houses, some Rondavels, three prospect shafts with wood burning steam hoists, a pilot mill, carpenter shop, combined General and Survey Office, a tennis court, a doctor without a hospital, no adequate water supply nor sanitation system, an embryo brick plant, three shot drill crews in the bush across the Luanshya drift, and Jimmy Moore and C. F. Spearpoint. The railroad was on the way from Ndola, but proceeding very cautiously”; “Notes for a Talk”, p. 8.

37. Spearpoint, “African Native,” pp. 34–35; RCM/CSD/file 210.6, Roan Monthly Compound Report, 30 November 1932.

38. ZA/7/1/16/7, Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 31 December 1930; RCM/CSD/KSN 3/1/4, District Commissioner, Ndola, Annual Report, 1932.

39. The Pim Report, p. 45; Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 61.

40. Dennis Etheredge, interview in Johannesburg, 12 October 1976.

41. SEC/LAB/1, W. J. Scrivener, “Native Labour as Affecting the Copper Industry of Northern Rhodesia,” 17 August 1934; PRO/CO/795/43/36043, H. S. Munroe, Rhodesian Anglo-American to Permanent Under-Secretary of State, C. O., 30 January 1931.

42. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 4.

43. The Pim Report, pp. 55–56.

44. J. S. Moffat, evidence to The Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Disturbances on the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1935), Cmd. 5009, 74 (The Russell Commission); the commission report is The Russell Report. The Pim Report, p. 164.

45. ZA/KSN/3/1/3, Provincial Commissioner, Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 1929.

46. Some provincial officials anticipated “the growth of a class of stabilized mineworkers living with their families in or near mine compounds”; ZA/KSN/3/1/3, P.C., Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 1929. William Stubbs, interview in Oxford, England, 25 October 1976.

47. Henry Carlisle, “David D. Irwin: An interview,” Mining Engineering (June 1964), p. 89.

48. The 1932 Mine Township Ordinance formalized mine control over their townships. The Pim Report, pp. 55–56.

49. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 18.

50. G. St. J. Orde Browne, Labour Conditions in Northern Rhodesia (Colonial No. 150 of 1938), p. 31 (The Orde Brown Report).

51. Gabriel Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 30 August 1976; SEC/LAB/2, General Manager, RACM to Labor Commissioner, 15 November 1941.

52. Stubbs interview (see note 46).

53. Chris Cook and Mavis Lloyd Leith, interview in East London, South Africa, 4 October 1976; Joseph Mubita, interview in Mufulira, 7 September 1976.

54. John V. Taylor and Dorothea S. Lehmann, Christians of the Copperbelt: The Growth of the Church in Northern Rhodesia (London, 1961), p. 32. Spearpoint believed “the general attitude of the native towards the European is that of a child looking to a teacher to impart to him all the necessary knowledge essential to his progress”; Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 15.

55. When Ashton Kabalika’s (a hospital clerk) house was searched, he complained to the compound manager, Mr. Gabbitas, who discharged the offending police. “The clerks and hospital clerks had some respect, so could demand their rights. It was harder for other people.” Ashton M. Kabalika, interview in Kitwe, 29 August 1976.

56. By 1940 Spearpoint had been a Compound Manager for 16 years: eight at Roan, seven in Southern Rhodesia, and the rest in Northern Rhodesia on other properties; Mwalwanda interview (see note 13).

57. Benjamin Schaefer, Compound Manager at Mufulira from 1930–36; he was in the Native Labor Department of UMHK and before that in the Panda-Shituru compound. A. B. K. Kaniki, interview in Kitwe by Dr. Ian Henderson, 19 August 1970; Schaefer, evidence to the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Copperbelt, Northern Rhodesia, July, 1940 (Lusaka, 1941), 30 (The Forster Commission).

58. Chembe Phiri, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976.

59. William J. Scrivener: 1912–19, employed by Robert Williams and Co.; 1919–24, employed by the Union Miniere Native Labor Department; 1924–29, Compound Manager at Bwana Mkubwa; 1929–60, Compound Manager at Rhokana. Dr. A. Charles Fisher, interview in Kitwe, 21 August 1976.

60. Matthew Mwendapole, interview in Ndola, 3 August 1976.

61. Terry and Chella Ndhlovu, interview by D. Lehmann, Nchanga, 1958. Gabbitas was Compound Manager at Nchanga from 1945; before that he spent eight years in the Rhokana Personnel Department and six years in the police.

62. Etheredge interview (see note 40); N. R. K. Davis, interview in Kitwe, 15 September 1976.

63. RCM/CSD/KHB/41, H. H. Field to manager, Native Labor Association, 22 August 1930.

64. Fetter, Elisabethville; Carlisle, “Irwin,” p. 90; Coulter, “The Sociological Problem,” p. 65.

65. RCM/CSD/W (2) HA 62, A. J. Orenstein, “Report on Health Conditions at Bwana Mkubwa, Nkana, Nchanga, Broken Hill, and Roan,” 20 December 1929; RCM/CSD/KHB41, H. H. Field to manager, Native Labor Association, 22 August 1930; a house at Roan in the mid-1930s cost about £25 to build. The Pim Report, p. 41.

66. LMS Box 9; A. M. Chirgwin, Report to Central African Committee, May–July 1931.

67. Reverend Fr. S. Siemieski, “The Mine Compound and Its Moral Influence upon the Native,” Proceedings of the General Missionary Conference of Northern Rhodesia, 1931 (Lusaka, 1931).

68. Carlisle, “Irwin,” p. 90.

69. Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” pp. 66–67; E. A. G. Robinson, “The Economic Problem,” in Davis, Modern Industry, p. 166.

70. Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 69.

71. Women received 7 pounds of mealie meal and 1 pound of meat per week. Each child received 3 pounds of meal a week. In contrast, each miner received IO-1/2 pounds of mealie meal and 2–3/4 pounds of meat per week plus nuts, vegetables, beans, salt, drippings, and fruit. W. J. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission 62; Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 38.

72. Chauncy found that in the 1930s women earned from perhaps £1 to £2 per brew after expenses, a significant addition to the family income when starting wages at the mines ranged from 12s6d to 30s per month. Chauncy, “Reproduction,” p. 145.

73. Ibid., pp. 30–31; Albert Musakanya, interview in Nkana, 22 September 1976.

74. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 44.

75. Ibid., pp. 40–46; RCM/CSD file 210.6, Compound Monthly Report, RACM, 31 January 1932.

76. Rev. H. C. Nutter, “Native Welfare Work in the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia,” Proceedings of the General Missionary Conference of Northern Rhodesia, 1931 (Lusaka, 1931), p. 123; CBM Box 1211, R.J.B. Moore to A. Cocker Brown, 25 February 1935.

77. NILAB, first meeting, 1935.

78. Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1929 and 1930.

79. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 10. Musakanya recalled that “if in any group of fifteen people, three died, everyone would run away”; Musakanya interview (see note 73).

80. “The native genuinely seeking employment does not remain for very long at one place if he has had no success at such a place; he moves on to other places until he finds it. In the Copperbelt they appear to move around in a circle from one mine to the other until they get work”; Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 50. Musakanya interview (see note 73).

81. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 453.

82. Northern Rhodesia, Report of the Northern Rhodesian Police Comission of Inquiry (Lusaka, 1947), 29; Kabilika interview (see note 55); Union Miniere had no bonus system, making frequent use of fines instead. Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 64.

83. Spearpoint, “African Native”; John Dalton, interview in Lusaka, 4 August 1975.

84. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 21; Phiri interview (see note 58); Mubita interview (see note 53).

85. Kabalika interview (see note 55).

86. “Misbehaving in the compound was not allowed”; V. K. Chisala, interview in Kitwe, 21 September 1976. RCM/WMA 64, RACM, Report, Compound Underground Branch—Supervisors’ Duties, 17 June 1947. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 442–46.

87. Northern Rhodesia, Report of the Northern Rhodesian Police Commission of Inquiry (Lusaka, 1947), p. 29.

88. Spearpoint, “African Native,” pp. 18–19.

89. P. J. Law, interview, Oxford, England, 26 October 1976.

90. ZA1/9/18/28/1, D. D. Irwin, general manager, RACM to Thomson, Secretary of Native Affairs, 24 December 1929.

91. Spearpoint, “African Native,” pp. 19–20; idem, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 593.

92. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 453–54.

93. Annual Reports upon Native Affairs, 1931, 1932; J. H. Holleman and S. Biesheuvel, White Mine Workers in Northern Rhodesia (Cambridge, England, 1973), p. 10.

94. ZA)KSN/3/l/4, Ndola District, Annual Report, 1932; ZA/KSN/3/1/5, Ndola District, Annual Report, 1935.

95. RCM/CSD/RACM 210.65, RACM, monthly labor returns, 1929–41; Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1934; R. Hesom (Assistant Compound Manager, MCM), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 155.

96. SEC/LAB/34, vol. 1 Report of the Sub-Committee of the Native Industrial Labour Advisory Board on Administrative Control of the Industrial Population (Lusaka, 1936); ZA1/9/18/36/2 Report of the Board of Management of the Native Labor Association, Ltd., for the year ending 31 December 1931.

97. RCM/CSD/WMA5, General Manager RACM to RST, London, 13 February 1932; Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 559.

98. In 1935, 34% of the black underground workers at Roan were “skilled.” RCM/CSD/WMA 139, Spearpoint to R. M. Peterson, 15 October 1935.

99. The Pim Report, p. 45. At Roan in 1935, 66% of the underground miners and 84% of the Nyasa underground miners were married; RCM/CSD/WMA 139, Spearpoint to Peterson, 15 October 1935.

100. RCM/CSD/KHB 41, RACM to RACM, London, 19 July 1935; Chairman’s Report of Meetings of the Native Industrial Labour Advisory Board held at Ndola on November 7th and 8th and December 16th and 17th, 1935 (Lusaka, 1936). The average period of employment at Roan was 416 shifts per worker, the longest on the Copperbelt; RCM/CSD/KHB 41, Colonel Stephenson, “Report,” 17 July 1935.

101. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 75; Scrivener, “Native Labour,” 17 August 1934. The percentage of Nyasa miners (generally skilled workers) was 20% at Roan in 1935, while dropping to 7.8% at Nkana; SEC/NAT/66G, Nkana district, Annual Report, 1935.

102. Mufulira’s turnover rate was 151% in 1935. RCM/CSD/KHB 41, RACM to RST London, 19 July 1935; J. D. Tallant, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 374, 377.

103. RCM/CSD/210.6, RACM, Monthly Compound Reports, 30 June 1932; Phiri interview (see note 58).

104. ZA1/9/18/28/1, F. Ayer, RACM to E.H.Jalland, Acting Secretary of Native Affairs, 2 August 1934.

105. Married housing was 14′ × 14′, with iron roofs, good doors, and cement floors. Single housing was smaller and more crowded. ZA 1/9/82/10, E. H. Jalland (Acting Secretary of Native Affairs), “Tour Report,” 7 August 1934.

106. ZA/KSN/3/1/5, Ndola District, Annual Report, 1933.

107. ZA1/9/18/57/1, meeting of Sir Auckland Geddes and Northern Rhodesian Government (NRG), 13 December 1933.

108. ZA/Acc. 72/3, vol. I, P.C., Ndola to General Manager, Rhokana, 28 July 1934; Dr. A. Charles Fisher, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 545.

109. ZA1/9/82/11, Jalland, “Tour Report,” 7 August 1934.

110. The Russell Report, p. 62.

111. Nutter, “Native Welfare,” pp. 121–23.

112. ZA/KSN 3/1/4, Ndola District, Annual Report, 1932.

113. Spearpoint, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 595–96.

114. The Orde Browne Report, p. 33; ZA 1/5/18/57/1, Geddes and NRG, 13 December 1933.

115. Fisher interview (see note 59); George Dunlop, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 172; Annual Reports upon Native Affairs, 1931–35.

116. B. Schaefer, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 29; Cook interview (see note 53).

117. Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1934; Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 464; Spearpoint, evidence, p. 89.

118. ZA 1/9/82/9, Secretary of Native Affairs, “Tour Report,” October 1933.

119. LMS Box 26, Central Africa, R.J.B. Moore to Chirgwin, 3 November 1933.

120. ZA1/9/18/28/1, F. Ayer to E. H. Jalland, 2 August 1934.

121. Gann, Northern Rhodesia, p. 252; Rhodes House Collection, MSS. British Empire s. 345, Autobiography of A. C. Vivian, “A Man of Metal,” pp. 144–47.

122. The Pim Report, p. 47.

123. Ibid. District Officers at Mufulira and Nchanga were recalled in 1931, leaving only a handful of police and a District Officer at Nkana. Thomas Sandford, Secretary for Native Affairs, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 7.

124. H. H. Field, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 184.

125. “The Mine natives and their families are well housed and fed and the Mine Authorities as a rule show a laudable desire to do their best for their social and physical welfare.” ZA/4/1/16/2, Luangwa Province, Annual Report, 1933.

126. The Orde Brown Report, p. 5.

127. One such official claimed management at Nkana “simply wanted to get 2 shillings worth of work for 1 shilling wage out of the bloody nigger.” SEC/LAB/16, R. S. W. Dickenson to Harold F. Cartmel-Robinson, 11 October 1933.

128. Sir Auckland Geddes’ suggestions for improvements at Nkana had been countered by assertions that the Northern Rhodesian government opposed a settled labor force. His exasperation with government officials, upon being told that stabilization was fine with them, is understandable. ZA1/9/18/57/1, Sir Auckland Geddes meeting with government officials, 13 December 1933; Legislative Council Debates, Northern Rhodesia, 12 December 1940, p. 383.

129. ZA/Acc. 72/1/1, District Officer, Nkana to Provincial Commissioner, Ndola, 1933; CBM Box 1211, R.J. B. Moore to T. Cocker Browne, 25 February 1935.

130. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974), Chap. 3.

131. In 1933 the Luanshya Beer Hall made a profit of £3,500. RCM/CSD/203.6, Mine Secretary, RACM to District Officer, Luanshya, 16 April 1932; RCM/CSD/203.6, African Welfare—Beer Halls and Canteens, RACM, 1930–55.

CHAPTER 3

1. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974), p. 34; Ian Henderson, “Early African Leadership: The Copperbelt Disturbances of 1935 and 1940,” Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS), 2, no. 1 (October 1975), pp. 84, 89–90.

2. Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979), Chap. 8.

3. Chris Cook, interview in East London, South Africa, 4 October 1976; R. Hesom (Assistant Compound Manager, Mufulira), evidence to the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Disturbances in the Copperbelt, Northern Rhodesia (London, 1935), Cmd. 5009 of 1935, p. 155 (The Russell Commission); Ben Schaefer, evidence, p. 89. The commission report is The Russell Report.

4. F. Ayer, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 201.

5. LMS Box 29, Central Africa, R.J. B. Moore to T. Cocker Brown, 22 August 1935; Poland Muyumbana (clerk, Nkana), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 487; J. S. Moffat, evidence, p. 282.

6. The Mbeni dance society was established in the late 1920s on the Copperbelt. At Mufulira, “Mbeni drums were used during the strike to call people together.” Mateyo Musiska, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 252; Amos Mpundu, evidence, p. 341.

7. The Russell Report, p. 15; Moffat, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 48, 61; Edward S. Fold, evidence, p. 666.

8. W. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 454–57; A. T. Williams, evidence, pp. 436–37, 441, 449.

9. Alimoni Juli (Nkana), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 531; Scrivener, evidence, p. 470. Capitaō were black supervisors.

10. Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 458, 468; Muyemba Smoke (Nkana), evidence, p. 485.

11. E. Muwamba, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 872.

12. The Russell Report, p. 20.

13. Two different workers tried to start a strike, but were arrested. SEC/LAB/67 vol. 1, F. Ayer to C. Dundas, 27 May 1935.

14. RCM/CSD/WHB9, F. Ayer to RACM, London, 30–31 May 1935; Sam Mwase, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 753–54; Muwamba, evidence, p. 879; A. B. Knox Kaniki, interview in Kitwe by Ian Henderson, 19 August 1970.

15. The Russell Report, Appendix.

16. RCM/CSD/WHB9, F. Ayer to RACM, London, 30–31 May 1935; The Russell Report, p. 21.

17. Muwamba, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 874; J. L. Keith, evidence, pp. 144–46.

18. ZP/10/3/1, J. L. Keith (D.C., Luanshya), “Report on the Strike on the Mines,” 31 May 1935, pp. 197–98; Joseph Kazembe (clerk, Roan), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 811.

19. RCM/CSD/WHB 9, H. H. Field, “Diary of Events from 27 May 1935 to 31 May 1935.”

20. Berger, Labour; Henderson, “African Leadership”; Perrings, Black Mineworkers.

21. Spearpoint claimed that a mass meeting in the dark was led by Bemba, although he wasn’t there himself. C. Spearpoint, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 597; Spearpoint was probably misled by the use of Bemba at large public meetings. At one meeting, for example, a Rozi man spoke in Bemba to the crowd; Muwamba, evidence, p. 875. A compound policeman told Ayer that the meeting on the football field was “a meeting of Bemba mineworkers”; RCM/CSD/WHB 9, F. Ayer to RACM, London, 30 May 1935.

22. Gabriel Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 30 August 1976. Muwamba admitted that people at a big Nkana meeting “were talking in ChiWemba, but I cannot say that they were of the Wemba”; Muwamba, evidence, p. 879.

23. The Russell Report, p. 14; Alfred Mwalwanda, interview in Luanshya, 13 September 1976.

24. Moffat, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 80–81.

25. The Russell Report, p. 20; E. Glyn-Jones (District Officer, Luanshya), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 34; Keith, evidence, p. 197; Kazembe, evidence, pp. 780–81.

26. CBM Box 1211, R. J. B. Moore to T. Cocker Brown, 12 August 1935.

27. S. Kayela, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 415.

28. Shiengi Mwepa (miner, Roan), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 342; Suponi Kombe (Compound Policeman, Mufulira), evidence, p. 150; Albert Musakanya, interview in Kitwe, 22 September 1976.

29. Sylvester Nkoma, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976.

30. Knox Kaniki interview (see note 14).

31. Dr. A. Charles Fisher, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 168; Nkoma interview (see note 29).

32. Eliti Tuli Phili (Nyasa clerk, Roan), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 758; Isaac Munkhata (capitaō, Luanshya compound), evidence, p. 324. During the Depression, starting wages fell from 17s6d to 12s6d for surface work, and from 30s to 20–22s6d for underground work; Scrivener, evidence, p. 559.

33. Kazembe, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 318–19; Mufulira mineworkers, evidence, p. 239.

34. Lubita Mukubesa (Health Dept., Nkana), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 482–83; Mufulira mineworkers, evidence, p. 238; Kabuyu (miner, Roan), evidence, p. 340.

35. Muyumbana, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 102; Samson Chilzia (boss boy underground, Roan), evidence, p. 801; Julius Chattah (Nyasa clerk, Roan), evidence, p. 355.

36. Mukubesa, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 98; Patson Kambafwile, interview at Mufulira, 9 September 1976.

37. Chola Linyama, former scraper driver, interview by Perrings at NCCM, Chingola, 18 April 1975. Charles Perrings, “Black Labour in the Copper-mines of Northern Rhodesia 1911–1941” (Ph.D. diss., University of London, 1976), p. 409; Babu Time (Nkana), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 115; Dr. A. Charles Fisher, interview at Kitwe, 21 August 1976.

38. Mufulira mineworkers, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 238–39; Ngostino Mwambwa (miner, Mufulira), evidence, p. 229; Sergeant Major Kafwilo (Mine Policeman, Nkana), evidence, p. 137.

39. If anything, witnesses underplayed grievances for fear of dismissal. CBM Box 1211, R.J.B. Moore to T. Cocker Brown, 22 August 1935. Moore lived near Mindolo Compound (Nkana), spoke Bemba, and circulated through the mines daily during and after the strike.

40. RCM/CSD/HHB41, Secretary, MCM to RST, 4 April 1930; Kambafwile interview (see note 36).

41. C. F. Spearpoint, “The African Native and the Rhodesian Copper Mines,” supplement to the Journal of the Royal African Society 36, no. 144 (July 1937): 10–16; G. Musumbulwa interview (see note 22) and Musakanya interview (see note 28).

42. Mwalwanda interview (see note 23). Many white underground miners relied heavily on the African supervisors working with them. Brian Goodwin, interview at Lusaka, 26 June 1976.

43. Kambafwile interview (see note 36).

44. Fanny Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 1 September 1976; Pascale Sokota, interview in Kitwe, 28 August 1976.

45. Musakanya interview (see note 28); A. L. Epstein, “Linguistic Innovation and Culture on the Copperbelt, Northern Rhodesia,” Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 15 (1959): 235; M. E. Kashoki, “Town Bemba: A Sketch of its Main Characteristics,” African Social Research 13 (June 1972).

46. Musakanya interview (see note 28).

47. Kambafwile interview (see note 36).

48. Musakanya interview (see note 28).

49. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 34; Mwalwanda interview (see note 23).

50. John Dalton, interview at Lusaka, 4 August 1975; Cook interview (see note3).

51. Mwalwanda interview (see note 23); John Chisata, interview at Mufulira, 14 September 1976.

52. R. J. B. Moore, “Native Wages and Standard of Living in Northern Rhodesia,” African Studies (1942), p. 145. In 1935, African underground workers at Roan received 52s6d per month maximum; Spearpoint, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 90. In 1929, a European underground timberman made £31.10s per month maximum; F. L. Coleman, The Northern Rhodesian Copperbelt, 1899–1962: Technological Development up to the End of the Central African Federation, p. 179.

53. Phili, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 757.

54. Charles Coulter, “The Sociological Problem,” in J. Merle Davis, ed., Modern Industry and the African (London, 1933), p. 89.

55. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 10; Kambafwile interview (see note 36). Three men who ran away from the mines claimed they had been beaten at the mine and “that the work was too hard”; they preferred jail to mine work; ZA/Acc.72/3, vol. 1, District Commissioner, Chinsali to District Officer, Nkana, 18 November 1931.

56. The Roan desertion rate was 638.2 per 1,000 in 1929, 377.4 in 1931, and 37.2 in 1935. RCM/CSD/210.65; RACM, Monthly Labor Returns, 1929–41. Nkana had high desertion rates; Dalton interview (see note 50).

57. Northern Rhodesia, Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1930.

58. Musakanya interview (see note 28).

59. G. Musumbulwa interview (see note 22) and Nkoma interview (see note 29); Private papers, J. Clyde Mitchell, from his 1952–53 Copperbelt survey.

60. ZA1/9/18/43/1, J. Moffat Thomson, Secretary for Native Affairs to the Chief Secretary, 23 September 1929; Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 22.

61. Spearpoint, “African Native,” pp. 23, 34; Coulter, “Sociological Problem,” p. 73.

62. Chembe H. Phiri, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976.

63. T. O. Ranger, Dance and Society in Eastern Africa (Los Angeles, 1975), pp. 71–76, 133; J. Clyde Mitchell, The Kalela Dance: Aspects of Social Relationships among Urban Africans in Northern Rhodesia, Rhodes-Livingstone Paper No. 27 (Manchester, 1956).

64. Sholto Cross, “The Watch Tower Movement in South Central Africa 1908–1945” (Ph.D. diss., Oxford 1973), pp. 360–61.

65. Legislative Council Debates, 11 May 1936; CO. 795/77/45103, Despatch from the Governor of Northern Rhodesia to S/S for the Colonies, P. Cunliffe-Lister, 1935.

66. LMS, Box 26, Central Africa, A. J. Cross to A. M. Chirgwin, 31 January 1932.

67. Cross, “Watch Tower,” p. 388.

68. Keith, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 199; Munkonge, evidence, p. 12£.

69. CBM Box 1213, Talk by Audrey Richards, Africa Circle, London, November 1934; George Chauncy, Jr., “The Locus of Reproduction: Women’s Labour in the Zambian Copperbelt, 1927–1953,” JSAS 7, no. 2 (April 1981).

70. (R)-A. 11, African Personnel Managers’ Annual Report, 1935. Miners spent £764 in 1933, £474 in 1934, and £400 in 1935 for imported clothes; Spearpoint, “African Native,” pp. 34–35, 54.

71. Gladys Eastland (welfare worker, Luanshya), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 503.

72. The Police Inspector, Ndola, evidence, p. 697.

73. Perrings, “Black Labour,” 418–19; (R)-A. 11, African Personnel Managers’ Monthly Compound Reports, January 1935.

74. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 207–13.

75. Kambafwile interview (see note 36) and Mwalwanda interview (see note 23).

76. Kambafwile interview (see note 36) and Nkoma interview (see note 29); Mwase, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 753–54.

77. Schaefer claimed that “it is very easy to get labor. At times we find it necessary to discharge many boys”; Ben Schaefer, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 29, 112. Scrivener, evidence, pp. 465, 469.

78. Kambafwile interview (see note 36). “There is much communication between the natives of Nkana and Luanshya . . .”; Moffat, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 284.

79. Ian Henderson, “Labour and Politics in Northern Rhodesia 1900–1953” (Ph.D. diss., University of Edinburgh, 1972), p. 153.

80. Williams, evidence to the Russell Commission, pp. 436–37; Scrivener, evidence, pp. 441, 449, 457; CBM Box 1211, R.J.B. Moore to T. Cocker Brown, 22 August 1935.

81. Mwalwanda interview (see note 23); A. H. Goslett (Mufulira police officer, European), evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 348.

82. Musakanya interview (see note 28).

83. Chisata interview (see note 51); Scrivener, evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 457; Moffat, evidence, p. 82.

84. Silas Mubanga (underground miner, Mufulira) evidence to the Russell Commission, p. 328; Scrivener, evidence, p. 461; Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 34.

85. Knox Kaniki interview (see note 14).

86. SEC/NAT/66G, Annual Report upon Native Affairs, 1935. Roan had the longest average length of employment and the lowest labor turnover on the Copperbelt; The Russell Report, p. 35.

87. The Russell Report, p. 29.

CHAPTER 4

1. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974), p. 57; Ian Henderson, “Early African Leadership: The Copperbelt Disturbances of 1935 and 1940,” Journal of South African Studies (JSAS) 2, no. 1 (October 1975); Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979), pp. 217–24.

2. RCM/CSD 201.33, RACM, Monthly labor returns, 1941.

3. A. Pim and S. Milligan, Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Financial and Economic Position of Northern Rhodesia (Colonial No. 145 of 1938), pp. 36, 52 (The Pim Report); H. Heisler, “Target Proletarians,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 5 (1970): 167–68.

4. W. Stubbs, interview in Oxford, England, 25 October 1976.

5. Honorable W. M. Logan, “Address to Broken Hill Political Association,” Race Relations 6, no. 2 (1939): 58; E. B. H. Goodall (Provincial Commissioner, Central Province), evidence to the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1941), p. 85 (The Forster Commission); the commission report is The Forster Report.

6. P. J. Law, interview in Oxford, England, 26 October 1976.

7. SEC/LAB/3, Acting Provincial Commissioner, Ndola (Wickins) to Acting Chief Secretary (Bradley), 23 September 1937; Law interview (see note 6).

8. Chairman’s Report of Meetings of the Native Industrial Labour Advisory Board, 7–8 November and 16–17 December 1935; SEC/LAB/34, T. F. Sandford to NRCM, 31 March 1941; The Pim Report, pp. 48, 205.

9. Chris Cook, interview in East London, South Africa, 10 October 1976.

10. RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), Acting Compound Manager to Business Manager, RACM, 23 September 1938. The 1940 proportion of married workers in the work force: Nkana—40%, Roan—58%, Nchanga—44.5%, and Mufulira—55%; ZA/Acc.52/3, Recommendations of the Forster Commission.

11. The Pim Report, pp. 42,45. Out of 3,969 workers at Roan, 1,053 had worked over three years; RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), Spearpoint to Business Manager, RACM, 23 September 1938.

12. RCM/CSD/KHB41, General Manager, RACM to Secretary, MCM, 8 December 1937; N. R. K. Davis, interview in Kitwe, 15 September 1976.

13. RCM/CSD/WMA 65, C. Spearpoint to General Manager, RACM, 16 November 1938.

14. (R)-A.11, Monthly Compound Reports, June–August 1935.

15. SEC/NAT/66G, Luanshya District, Annual Report, 1939; G. Howe (Labour Commissioner), evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 96.

16. ZA/Acc. 72/1/3, District Commissioner, Nkana to Provincial Commissioner, Ndola, 24 November 1937.

17. W. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 573; SEC/NAT/66G, Chingola Station, Annual Report, 1939; RCM/WMA 65 (205.5), General Manager, RACM to District Commissioner, Luanshya, October 1938.

18. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission.

19. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, B. D. Gibson to J. Soulsby, 3 August 1938; CBM Box 1213, A. Cross to B. D. Gibson, 10 September 1938.

20. MMS/MII.1, Agnes Fraser to B. D. Gibson, 12 May 1938; Monty Graham-Harrison, interview in London, 27 October 1976.

21. The mines even petitioned the government to create schools with high fees for the children of “superior Native employees and semi-permanent employees.” CBM Box 1213, A. Cross to B. D. Gibson, 9 February 1937.

22. UMCB, Annual Report, 1936–37. Mufulira in 1939 had a self-supporting night school with attendance of 125; LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, Extracts from Minutes of the Team, 20 November 1939. Fifty men signed up at Mufulira in 1938 for the African Lecture and Debating Society; MMS BI.1, W. H. Harrison to G. Ayre, MMS, London, 19 May 1938.

23. UMCB, Annual Report, 1938–39, p. 7; David Greig, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 328.

24. LMS Box 30, Central Africa, R.J.B. Moore to LMS, London, 7 June 1937; LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, Moore to LMS, London, 22 November 1938.

25. CBM Box 1213, Pamphlet prepared for the Anti-Slavery and Aborigines Protection Society, Africa Conference, “The Industrialization of the African,” November 1937; SEC/LAB/1, Parliamentary Debates, Extract from the Official Report of 8 July 1937.

26. G. St. J. Orde Browne, Labour Conditions in Northern Rhodesia (Colonial No. 150 of 1938), pp. 3–4, 23–24, 28, 33, 72 (The Orde Brown Report); The Pim Report, pp. 333–39.

27. SEC/LAB/92, Governor John Maybin to Chief Secretary, 4 March 1940; Ian Henderson, “Workers and the State in Colonial Zambia,” in The Evolving Structure of Zambian Society, Proceedings of a Seminar held in the Centre of African Studies, University of Edinburgh, 30–31 May 1980 (Edinburgh, 1980).

28. CBM Box 1213, A. Cross to B. D. Gibson, 10 September 1938; Joseph Pierce, interview in Luanshya, 2 September 1976.

29. ZA/Acc. 52/6, G. Howe, Labor Commissioner, views on The Forster Report, 9 March 1940.

30. RCM/CSD/WMA 65 (205.5), C. Spearpoint to General Manager, RACM, 16 November 1938.

31. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 560, 562; (R)-A.11 Compound Monthly Report, January 1936.

32. Arthur J. Cross, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 286.

33. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 609.

34. Ibid., p. 609; C. F. Spearpoint, “The African Native and the Rhodesia Copper Mines,” supplement to the Journal of the Royal African Society 36, no. 144 (July 1937): 22.

35. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 560, 562.

36. Cross, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 286.

37. Scrivener, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 609.

38. Ashton Kabalika, interview in Kitwe, 29 August 1976.

39. The Forster Report, pp. 47–52, Appendix IV; RCM/CSD/KMA 94, A. R. Harrison, Rhokana to Chief Secretary, 27 March 1940.

40. Henderson, “African Leadership,” pp. 90–91; RCM/CSD/KMA 94, H. H. Field to R. M. Peterson, 17 April 1940, diary of events between 17 March and 8 April 1940.

41. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, p. 221; Albert G. Musakanya, interview in Nkana, 22 September 1976.

42. Thomas Muhongo, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 375; Edward Sampa, evidence, p. 343.

43. T. F. Sandford, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 367.

44. The Forster Report, Appendix.

45. Morton Mwinifumba, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 367; Musakanya interview (see note 41).

46. Julius N. Chattah (clerk, Mufulira), evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 439; Howe, evidence, p. 108; A. T. Williams, evidence, p. 180.

47. R. J. B. Moore, “Native Wages and Standard of Living in Northern Rhodesia,” African Studies 1, no. 2 (June 1942); Frank Bedford, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 499–500.

48. Williams, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 191; Mufulira Committee of Seventeen, evidence, p. 518; Kabalika interview (see note 38).

49. NCCM/CSD/KMA 94, R. M. Peterson, Memorandum on the Strike, 27 April 1940; The Forster Report, pp. 16, 18–20.

50. Chattah, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 436.

51. William Stubbs, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 399.

52. Yaphat Gerusi (Ngoni miner, Mufulira), evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 445; Stubbs, evidence, p. 394.

53. Mufulira Committee of Seventeen, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 509.

54. Greig, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 321–22.

55. Lama Kabuka (worked nine years on mine, tribal elder), evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 362; Henry Mulenga, evidence, pp. 333–34.

56. Stubbs, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 402, 404, 406–07; Josiah Imbowa, evidence, p. 338; Williams, evidence, p. 197; Sampa, evidence, p. 346.

57. Stubbs, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 422.

58. Sandford, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 26, 42.

59. Sampa, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 345.

60. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, Julius Lewin, Report on a Visit to the Copperbelt, May 1940.

61. Sandford, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 11.

62. Stubbs, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 420–21; Sandford, evidence, p. 31.

63. Howe, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 82; Sandford, evidence, p. 17; Robert I. Rotberg, Black Heart: Gore-Browne and the Politics of Multiracial Zambia (Berkeley, 1977), p. 219.

64. Howe, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 79. Gore-Browne walked around Nkana after the shooting with the permission of some strike leaders; Rotberg, Black Heart, pp. 221–22.

65. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, Julius Lewin, “Report,” May 1940.

66. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, Lewin, “Report,” May 1940; Williams, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 227; Bedford, evidence, p. 501.

67. The Pim Report, p. 47.

68. MMS/MII.1, Agnes Fraser to B. D. Gibson, 5 December 1938.

69. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, A. Cross to Cullen Young, 4 August 1939.

70. R. J. B. Moore and J. R. Shaw, “Marriage and Temporary Unions,” and Monty Graham-Harrison, “Women and Girls’ Work in the Urban Areas,” Proceedings of the General Missionary Conference of Northern Rhodesia, 1939. The ratio of men to women at Chingola mine was 2:1; SEC/NAT/66G, Chingola Station, Annual Report, 1939.

71. Malcolm Watson, “A Conquest of Disease: Hygiene in Northern Rhodesia,” in Malcolm Watson, ed., African Highway: The Battle for Health in Central Africa (London, 1953), p. 70; MMS/MII.1, Agnes Fraser to B. D. Gibson, 5 December 1938.

72. (R)-A.11, Compound Report, January 1939.

73. CBM Box 1213, LMS, London to Agnes Fraser, 15 March 1935.

74. Ernest Muwamba, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 531–32.

75. Julius Lewin, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 170. In Copperbelt schools, one out of ten children aged twelve to seventeen years had never been to their parents’ home village. Half of them had been brought up in the urban areas. For children under ten years, the proportion was about three-quarters. R.J.B. Moore, These African Copper Miners (London, 1948), p. 60.

76. Herkos Sikwanda (miner of three years, Nkana), evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 524.

77. Muwamba, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 530.

78. H. H. Field, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 624. In 1942, Saffery concluded that “Africans working on the mines are becoming increasingly conscious of the great gap between the wages paid to Europeans and those which they themselves receive. I have been impressed by the bitterness with which Africans speak of their wages. They declare openly that although it is they who do the work, it is the Europeans who get the money.” A. Lynn Saffery, “A Report on Some Aspects of African Living Conditions on the Copper Belt of Northern Rhodesia,” mimeograph (Lusaka, 1943), p. 20.

79. Chattah, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 441.

80. In 1941, wage increases established grade C (unskilled labor) at a wage from 25s to 50s per ticket, grade B (semi-skilled) from 40s to 70s per ticket, and grade A (skilled) from 50s to 100s per ticket. Surface labor could make a maximum of 30s per ticket for grade C, 50s for grade B, and 80s for grade C. Special Grade workers, like clerks, could make £2.10s per month. Saffery, “Report,” p. 11.

81. Cook interview (see note 9).

82. Matthew Mwendapole, interview in Ndola, 3 August 1976.

83. Perrings, Black Mineworkers, pp. 220–22. Perrings emphasizes ethnicity in the clash between strike leaders and clerks. Many clerks were Nyasa. While ethnicity may have enhanced this antagonism, the strike leaders clearly understood that the issue was collaboration with management, not ethnicity. Accusations were leveled against any black workers who allied themselves with management, not one particular ethnic group.

84. Spearpoint, “African Native,” p. 34.

85. R. J. B. Moore, Man’s Act and God’s in Africa (London, 1940), p. 65.

86. Moore believed “the Bantu wants . . . to be treated as people, not only by the few who know them, but by the man in the street.” Moore, Copper Miners, p. 60.

87. Cross, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 286. Bedford was accused of wanting to fashion clever Africans; MMS, BI.1, Arthur Slater to W. J. Noble, 27 February 1935; Bedford, evidence, p. 496.

88. LMS, Box 30, Central Africa, Memo regarding the work of the Literature Superintendent with the Inter-Mission Team in Northern Rhodesia, 24 June 1937; J. V. Taylor and D. Lehmann, Christians of the Copperbelt (London, 1961), p. 44.

89. UMCB, Annual Reports, 1937–40; LMS Box 5, Africa Reports, David Greig, “On the Copperbelt 1936–1937.”

90. Musakanya interview (see note 41). Musakanya was sports organizer for the Kitwe Management Board.

91. Alfred Mwalwanda, interview in Luanshya, 13 September 1976.

92. Chembe Phiri, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976; Patson Kambafwile, interview at Mufulira, 9 September 1976.

93. Godwin Lewanika: worked in the compound office at Nkana; active in early African associations; President of the Kitwe African Society in the 1940s, the Federation of African Societies of Northern Rhodesia 1946–48, the African National Congress 1948–51, and the Mines African Salaried Staff Association 1953–64; Litunga of Barotseland 1968.

94. David Greig recruited Europeans to coach and referee, UMCB, Annual Reports, 1936–37, 1937–38.

95. Kabalika interview (see note 38); Sylvester Nkoma, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976.

96. Stubbs, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 389; Howe, evidence, p. 67.

97. European Mineworkers, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 751–52. Goodwin was a miner at Nkana. He was president of the European Mineworkers’ Union in the 1940s; member of the Legislative Council 1944–48. He left the Copperbelt to begin farming near Lusaka.

98. European Mineworkers, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 719.

99. SEC/LAB/3, Provincial Commissioner, Ndola to Chief Secretary, 2 November 1938; Hodgson, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 761.

100. The Forster Commission Report.

101. NCCM/CSD/Native Strike, 1940, N.J. Nairn to Anglo-American Corporation, Johannesburg, 16 April 1940.

CHAPTER 5

1. Northern Rhodesia, Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1944; SEC/LAB/45; Department of Labor, Nchanga and Nkana Reports, March 1944.

2. Scrivener believed “the married employee is undoubtedly more contented than the single, he is better fed, looked after and clothed and has the rudiments of a sense of responsibility which tends to make him a more stable and efficient worker.” Married labor was also “an insurance against a labor shortage.” RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), W. Scrivener to general manager, Rhokana, 20 March 1943.

3. Mr. Stratford (Counsel for the mining companies), evidence to the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Disturbances in the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1941), pp. 568, 638 (The Forster Commission).

4. RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), W. Scrivener to General Manager, Rhokana, 20 March 1943; RCM/CSD/KMA 17, NRCM, memo on Native Labor Policy, September 1944.

5. A. Lynn Saffery, “A Report on Some Aspects of African Living Conditions on the Copper Belt of Northern Rhodesia,” mimeograph (Lusaka, 1943), pp. 49–50. Saffery was a special labor officer brought in to investigate conditions in the urban areas.

6. SEC/LAB/45, Labor Department, Mufulira Report, April 1945.

7. RCM/CSD 202.7 (2A), C. F. Spearpoint, Memo on Native Labor Policy, 25 August 1942, and H. H. Field, Memo on Native Labor Policy, 1 September 1942; P. J. Law, interview in Oxford, England, 26 October 1976.

8. Spearpoint and Field, Memos on Native Labor Policy; Law interview (see note 7).

9. ZA/Ace.52/6, General Manager, RACM to Chief Secretary, Lusaka, 4 January 1941; Stratford, evidence to the Forster Commission, pp. 542–43.

10. RCM/CSD/KHB 14, Johannesburg Conference, 1946.

11. T. F. Sandford, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 619; Scrivener, evidence, p. 611.

12. ZA/Acc. 52/17; Labor Commissioner to Chief Secretary, 9 October 1942.

13. Absenteeism fell by 50% after the Emergency Powers were amended to include Africans. SEC/LAB/45, Labor Officer, Report on RACM, 7–10 July 1942.

14. Mutende, 30 July 1943 and 26 August 1943.

15. RCM/CSD/KMA 23, General Manager, RACM to Secretary, RACM, London, 2 September 1940.

16. N. R. K. Davis, interview in Kitwe, 15 September 1976.

17. Sandford, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 10; William Stubbs, interview in Oxford, England, 25 October 1979.

18. CISB, 100:20:7A, W. A. Pope, General Manager, Nchanga to Secretary, NRCM, 25 July 1941.

19. ZA/Acc.52/17, Stubbs to Labor Commissioner, 24 November 1943.

20. Stubbs interview (see note 17).

21. In 1941, W. Stubbs was labor officer at Kitwe, and P.J. Law was stationed at Mufulira. ZA/Acc.52/17, Meetings between the Department of Labor and NRCM, 28–29 September 1942.

22. Creech Jones Papers: ACJ/22/3/1, Harold Macmillan to Arthur Creech Jones, 6 May 1942.

23. CISB 100:60:1, Estimates on Social Welfare Expenses submitted at the 5th Executive Committee Meeting, NRCM, 1945.

24. RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), Scrivener to General Manager, Rhokana, 31 January 1944. NRCM Memo on African Labor Policy, 29 June 1945. McPherson, a UMCB missionary, found the welfare facilities at Mufulira “in a state of decay” in 1946; Fergus McPherson, interview in Lusaka, 26 September 1975.

25. RCM/CSD/202.7 (2A), C. Spearpoint, Memo on Native Labor Policy, 25 August 1942; R. J. B. Moore, evidence to the Forster Commission, p. 72; Francis J. Bedford, evidence, p. 495.

26. CBM Box 1213, Memo from NRCM, 17 June 1943.

27. LMS Box 32B, Central Africa, R. J. B. Moore to T. Cocker Brown, 20 December 1940; Hugh Theobald, Moore of the Copperbelt: The Man and the Work (London, 1946).

28. CBM Box 1213, A. Cross to B. D. Gibson, 3 February 1941.

29. RCM/CSD/202.7 (no. 1), C. Spearpoint, Notes on Saffery’s Report, 14 July 1943. Field wrote “between the pages of this Report—Part I—there are some very impressive and true photographs, and much has been put into print which I feel is to be true. . . . Part I is of far-reaching importance, and will live to be quoted in the event of industrial trouble”; RCM/CSD/KMA 20, H. Field to General Manager, MCM, 29 June 1943; SEC/LAB/71, Comments on the Saffery Report, NRCM, October 1943.

30. SEC/LAB/71, R. Hudson, “Comments on the Memorandum of the NRCM on the Saffery Report,” 25 October 1943; Acting Chief Secretary to South African Institute of Race Relations, 12 September 1946.

31. CISB, 100:60:1, A. H. Elwell, “Memorandum on the Development of African Social Welfare Services in the Urban Areas of the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia,” 1945.

32. SEC/NAT/311, Gore-Browne, Notes, 24 September 1946; CISB, 100:60:1, Native Affairs Advisory Committee meeting, 19 February 1946.

33. A. Mwalwanda and G. Musumbulwa, interviews in Luanshya, 13 September and 22 September 1976, respectively.

34. “One result of the proposed cut has been a great increase in the efficiency of the labor both European and African, complaints, assaults, and absentees have shown a marked decrease in the last three weeks. This has also happened at Mufulira”; SEC/LAB/45, Department of Labor, Nchanga Report, February 1944. At Nkana, the labor officer reported that “all employees with unsatisfactory records are being dismissed”; SEC/LAB/45, Labor Officer, report on Nkana, 29 February 1944.

35. SEC/LAB/45, Labor Officer, Report on Visits to Roan, 7–10 July 1942 and 29–31 December 1941; RCM/CSD/KMA 5, Tribal Representative Meeting, MCM, 3 May 1943, 21 April 1942, and 4 December 1944.

36. RCM/CSD/KMA 5, Tribal Representative Meeting, MCM, 2 October 1944, and 5 March 1945.

37. Law interview (see note 7).

38. RCM/CSD/KHB 41, Meeting between the Labor Department and the African Wages Sub-Committee of NRCM, 28–29 September 1942.

39. ZA/Acc. 52/17, Labor Commissioner to Secretary, NRCM, 9 September 1943; ZA/Acc. 7, W. Stubbs to NRCM, 5 August 1942.

40. Stubbs interview (see note 17) Law interview (see note 7).

41. ZA/Acc. 52/17, NRCM Memo on the establishment of Boss Boy Associations, 29 September 1942; ZA/Acc. 52/17, Chief Secretary to Labor Commissioner, 29 October 1942.

42. ZA/Acc. 52/17, Meeting of the Sub-Committee of Labor Officers and Compound Managers, Kitwe, 22 December 1943. Labor Commissioner to Stubbs, 2 December 1943.

43. ZA/Acc. 52/17, Labor Officer, Nkana to Labor Commissioner, 28 October 1943. Labor Commissioner to Stubbs, 2 December 1943.

44. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974), p. 87; Epstein, Politics, pp. 89–90; Ian Henderson, “Wage-Earners and Political Protest in Colonial Africa: The Case of the Copperbelt,” African Affairs 72, no. 288 (July 1973): 294–95.

45. ZA/Acc. 52/17, Boss Boys’ Committee, MCM, 10 June 1943 and 12 March 1945.

46. Robert I. Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873–1964 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965), pp. 200–07; Epstein, Politics, pp. 67–68.

47. F. M. N. Heath, “The Growth of African Council on the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia,” The Journal of African Administration, 5, no. 3 (1953): 2. Gore-Browne went to welfare society meetings of 1,000 at Mufulira, 720 at Luanshya, and a large crowd in Kitwe; SEC/LAB/311, Gore-Browne, “Notes on Copperbelt Meetings with Africans,” 1946.

48. Unskilled workers still protested conditions by absenteeism, especially at Roan, “mainly attributable to expansion resulting in some labor shortage and to Natives being put to strenuous work before being hardened.” Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1941. One night-gang took turns being absent because the work was too hard to do fourteen days straight and the pay was not good enough; SEC/LAB/45, Labor Officer, Report on Roan, 3–6 December 1940.

49. Mwalwanda interview (see note 33).

50. ZA/Acc. 52/7, Law to Labor Officer, Ndola, 3 August 1942; Stubbs, “Report on Meetings with Nkana and Mindolo Boss Boys,” 21 October 1942; SEC/LAB/45, Department of Labor, Monthly Report, Mufulira, October 1942.

51. SEC/LAB/45, Department of Labor, Mufulira, May 1943; RCM/CSD/KMA 5, Boss Boys’ Committee, MCM, 12 March 1945 and 2 November 1942.

52. ZA/Acc. 52/7, Law to Labor Officer, Ndola, 3 August 1942; RCM/CSD/KMA 5, Boss Boys’ Committee, MCM, 18 June 1945.

53. Law interview (see note 7).

54. RCM/CSD/KMA 5, Boss Boys’ Committee, MCM, 18 June 1945; ZA/Acc. 72/1/6, Labor Department, Report on Nkana and Mindolo, 23 and 30 October and 3–5 November 1942.

55. RCM/CSD/KMA 202.2, Compound Managers’ Committee, NRCM, 26 September 1944.

56. SEC/LAB/45, Labor Officer, Report on Roan, July–August 1943; ZA/Acc. 52/17, Stubbs to Labor Commissioner, 6 April 1943.

57. Saffery estimated an urbanized African family of four needed a £6.1s7d per month income. The average African miner made £4.14s.7d per month including benefits. Thus, only married workers in high income brackets could support families. Saffery, “Report,” pp. 12–13.

58. Final Report of the Commission of Enquiry into the Cost of Living (Lusaka, 1947), p. 41.

59. Law interview (see note 7).

60. RCM/CSD/KMA 8, Boss Boys’ Committee, RACM, 28 November and 25 July 1946; Saffery, “Report,” p. 20.

61. Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1944.

62. CISB, 100:23 vol. 1, P. H. Truscott to Mine Managers, 4 October 1946; RCM/CSD/KMA 8, Meeting of the Clerks and Boss Boys’ Representatives, RACM, 28 November 1947.

63. RCM/CSD/KMA 18, Boss Boys’ Committee, RACM, 28 November 1947.

64. ZA/Acc. 52/17, P. J. Law to Labor Commissioner, 23 May 1945.

65. ZA/Acc. 52/17, NRCM to Labor Commissioner, 25 April 1945. Spearpoint believed “the possibility of serious trouble in this Territory . . . will be lessened just so soon as we have a Native Trade Union.” He worried about the possibility of a multi-racial union. RCM/CSD file 202.7(2A), C. Spearpoint, Native Labor Policy, 25 August 1942.

66. Sir Richard Luyt, interview in Cape Town, South Africa, 7 October 1976.

67. Matthew Mwendapole, interview in Ndola, 3 August 1976.

68. Legislative Council Debates, 20 December 1945 and 6 April 1946; SEC/LAB/150, D.C., Luanshya to Senior Provincial Commissioner, Ndola, 5 July 1947.

69. Law interview (see note 7) and Stubbs interview (see note 17).

70. Epstein papers, interview with Chambeshi, 27 December 1953; Report of the Department of Labor, February 1943.

71. SEC/LAB/71, P. C., Western Province to Chief Secretary, 2 February 1944; Law interview (see note 7) and Stubbs interview (see note 17).

72. Albert Musakanya, interview in Nkana, 22 September 1976.

73. ZA/’Ace. 52/17, Department of Labor, Draft: Development of Machinery for African Workers in the Copper Mines, 13 May 1946.

74. Arthur Turner, “The Growth of Railway Unionism in the Rhodesias, 1944–55,” in R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen, eds., The Development of an African Working Class: Studies in Class Formation and Action (Toronto, 1975).

75. Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1946, 1947; Evidence to the Commission of Enquiry into the Cost of Living (Lusaka, 1947), pp. 203, 256, 261.

76. RCM/CSD/KMA 8, Boss Boys’ Committee, RACM, 29 May 1947. The government did eventually set up a commission.

77. Legislative Council Debates, 20 December 1945.

78. Brian Goodwin, interview in Lusaka, 26 June 1976.

79. Legislative Council Debates, 6 May 1946 and 9 March 1948; Berger, Labour, p. 100.

80. Goodwin interview (see note 78).

81. Berger, Labour, pp. 89–96; Epstein, Politics, pp. 89–90; Anirudha Gupta, “Trade Unionism and Politics on the Copperbelt,” in William Tordoff, ed., Politics in Zambia (Manchester, England, 1974).

82. Pascale Sokota, interview at Kitwe, 28 August 1976.

83. Law observed that “in some ways, some of the boss boys were very close to the European contract miners in their own gangs. Some of these European miners took a tremendous interest in their own gang. Often relationships between boss boys and Europeans right over them were very good.” Law interview (see note 7). Kabalika supported equal pay for equal work; he got the idea from Brian Goodwin, whom he described as “a good person, [he] wanted Africans to get better pay and houses.” Ashton Kabalika, interview in Kitwe, 29 August 1976.

84. Stubbs interview (see note 17), Kabalika interview (see note 83), and Mwendapole interview (see note 67).

85. SEC/LAB/125, A. Bevan, Report to the Department of Labor, 13 April 1946; SEC/LAB/125, Labor Commissioner to Secretary of Native Affairs, 25 April 1946.

86. SEC/LAB/125, Labor Commissioner, Hudson, to Chief Secretary, 28 April 1946.

87. Legislative Council Debates, 7 May 1946; Berger, Labour, pp. 90–91.

88. J. R. Hooker, “The Role of the Labour Department in the Birth of African Trade Unionism in Northern Rhodesia,” International Review of Social History 10, no. 1 (1965): 17; Stubbs interview (see note 17).

89. RCM/CSD/KHB 14, The Johannesburg Conference, December 1946.

90. Berger, Labour, p. 93.

CHAPTER 6

1. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974); A. L. Epstein, Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester, England, 1958); S. Zelniker, “Changing Patterns of Trade Unionism: The Zambian Case 1948–64” (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1970); Ian Henderson, “Wage-Earners and Political Protest in Colonial Africa: The Case of the Copperbelt,” African Affairs 72, no. 288 (July 1973).

2. William Stubbs, interview in Oxford, England, 25 October 1976.

3. RCM/CSD/KHB 14, Conference at Johannesburg between AA and RST, 9–14 December 1946.

4. Epstein papers, History of Works Committees, 7 December 1953. In 1948 the works committees held ten meetings at Nchanga, ten at Nkana, and eight at Roan Antelope during a period of eleven months. At Mufulira only three meetings took place.

5. Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1947; RCM/CSD/KMA 18, 56th Executive Committee Meeting, NRCM, 19 December 1947.

6. Brian Goodwin, interview in Lusaka, 26 June 1976; SEC/LAB/125, W. Comrie, Monthly Report, December 1947.

7. P. J. Law, interview in Oxford, England, 26 October 1976.

8. SEC/LAB/125, Meeting held at Government House to discuss African policy, Lusaka, 19 February 1947; G. St. J. Orde Browne, Report on Labor Conditions in East Africa (London, 1946), p. 193.

9. SEC/LAB/125, Labor Commissioner to NRCM, 21 January 1948.

10. SEC/LAB/126, W. Comrie, Monthly Report, March 1948.

11. Joseph Mubita, interview in Mufulira, 7 September 1976.

12. Epstein papers, interview with L. Katilungu, 6 October 1953.

13. Goodwin interview (see note 6).

14. SEC/LAB/125, Meeting at Lusaka, 19 February 1947.

15. Law interview (see note 7); SEC/LAB/125, meeting at Lusaka, 19 February 1947.

16. Stubbs interview (see note 2); Sir Ronald Prain, interview in Weybridge, England, 1982; Law recalled that “Comrie was regarded with a good deal of suspicion by the Administration”; Law interview (see note 7).

17. Law interview (see note 7).

18. SEC/LAB/125, Labor Commissioner to W. Comrie, 19 January 1948.

19. Sir Richard Luyt, interview in Cape Town, South Africa, 7 October 1976.

20. Zelniker, “Patterns,” pp. 126, 129.

21. John Chisata, interview in Mufulira, 14 September 1976.

22. Gabriel Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 30 August 1976.

23. RCM/CSD/KMA 18, Executive Committee, NRCM, 16 July 1948.

24. Labor and Mines Department, Annual Reports, 1950, 1951.

25. In 1951, Mufulira had 8,426 miners of whom 2,321 had worked over four years, and 4,586 over two years. RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 2, African Timekeeper, MCM, to Assistant Mine Secretary, MCM, 30 October 1951.

26. J. Clyde Mitchell, African Urbanization in Ndola and Luanshya, Rhodes-Livingstone Communication no. 6 (Manchester, 1954), p. 19.

27. Labor and Mines Department, Annual Reports, 1950, 1951; J. Clyde Mitchell, tabulations from the Nchanga Staff Records for 30 April 1951, Table 1. Another table from Mitchell concerning Nchanga workers is the following:

28. CISB, 100:60:1, J. D. Rheinnalt Jones, “The Welfare of African Workers,” 1951; CISB, African Statistics, NRCM, September 1952.

29. Matthew Mwendapole, interview in Ndola, 3 August 1976.

30. SEC/LAB/50, Labor Commissioner to Chief Secretary, 13 November 1947.

31. SEC/LAB/125, W. Comrie to Labor Commissioner, 17 November 1947.

32. Zelniker, “Patterns,” pp. 136–39; S. Nkoma, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976. Epstein papers, interview with Comrie, 17 December 1953.

33. Ian Henderson, “Labour and Politics in Northern Rhodesia, 1900–1953: A Study of the Limits of Colonial Power” (Ph.D. diss., University of Edinburgh, 1973), p. 226; Alfred Mwalwanda, interview in Luanshya, 13 September 1976.

34. Fanny Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 1 September 1976.

35. Ibid.

36. Pascale Sokota, interview in Kitwe, 28 August 1976; Epstein papers, interview with miner, 10 December 1953.

37. Lawrence Katilungu (1914–61): employed as teacher; underground worker at Nkana 1936–40; paymaster for fish transport in the Belgian Congo; reengaged as clerk, then senior interpreter at Nkana 1947–49; chairman, Kitwe branch, National African Congress 1948; president, African Mineworkers’ Union 1946–60; president, African Trade Union Congress 1950; deputy-president of the African National Congress 1961. R. Segal, Political Africa (London, 1961) pp. 128–30.

38. Henderson, “Labour,” p. 226; Albert Musakanya, interview in Kitwe, 22 September 1976.

39. Epstein papers, interview with Nkoloma, 14 December 1953.

40. Epstein, Politics, p. 93. A union paper, the African Miner, started in 1953.

41. SEC/LAB/125, Department of Labor, Meeting about organizing African mineworkers’ union branches, 22 January 1948.

42. RCM/CSD/KMA 18, meeting between the Labor Department and NRCM, 19 April 1948; SEC/LAB/126, W. Comrie, Monthly Reports, May–June and July 1948. The boss boy in charge of the sanitary cleaners was Nashon, a Lala, with over twenty years on the mines. He and Chambeshi won over the department, which was the first to accept the union. “Since that time the sanitary members have been strong members.” Epstein papers, interview with Chambeshi, 25 December 1953.

43. Department of Labor and Mines, Annual Report, 1949; SEC/LAB/126, W. Comrie, Monthly Report, May–June 1948.

44. Zelniker, “Patterns,” pp. 132–34.

45. Matthew R. Mwendapole, A History of the Trade Union Movement in Zambia up to 1968, University of Zambia, Institute for African Studies, Communication No. 13 (Lusaka, 1977), p. 9.

46. Wage increases varied from 2s6d to 30s per month. Department of Labor, Annual Report, 1948.

47. RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 2, MCM African Labor Policy, 15 November 1951; N. R. K. Davis, interview in Kitwe, 15 September 1976.

48. RCM/CSD/202.7 (1 and 2), Memorandum on the Industrial Relations Conference, 8 May 1947. MCM, London to NRCM, 9 June 1947.

49. Prain interview (see note 16); Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Advancment of Africans in Industry (Lusaka, 1948), pp. 35–41 (The Dalgleish Report).

50. David C. Mulford, Zambia: The Politics of Independence (London, 1967), pp. 11–13.

51. Berger, Labour, pp. 99, 108. Sir Roy (Roland) Welensky (b. 1907): member of the Legislative Council of Northern Rhodesia, 1938–53; Minister of Transport, Communications and Posts, Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 1953–56; Federal Prime Minister, 1956–63.

52. Sir Roy Welensky, Welensky’s 4,000 Days (London, 1964), pp. 21–26.

53. CISB, 100:15, vol. 2, P. H. Truscott, conference at Kitwe, 30 August-1 September 1948.

54. SEC/LAB/125, P. J. Law to Labor Commissioner, 21 April 1948.

55. SEC/LAB/125, meeting at Lusaka, 19 February 1947; RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 2, NRCM to AMWU, 23 July 1951.

56. RCM/CSD/WMA 64, Executive Committee, NRCM, 24 May 1949; RCM/CSD/KMA 19, Meeting of NRCM, Comrie, AMWU and APMs, 22 February 1949; (R)-H.2, general manager, Rhokana to department heads, 20 January 1951.

57. RCM/CSD/205.2, no. 1, Government Gazette, 12 November 1948. Executive Committee, NRCM, 3 March 1949.

58. Stubbs interview (see note 2).

59. SEC/LAB/125, labor officer, MCM to W. Comrie, 8 December 1948; RCM/CSD/KMA 18, H. H. Field, compound manager, to general manager, MCM, 2 May 1949.

60. ZA/NR3/48, labor commissioner to labor officer, Ndola, 9 February 1950; RCM/CSD/KMA 19, NRCM, Meeting of Comrie, CMs and AMWU, 22 February 1949.

61. Mwalwanda interview (see note 33).

62. SEC/LAB/61, Labor Officers’ Conference, 24–25 June 1948; ZA/NR3/66, Labour Officers’ Conference, 7–9 July 1947.

63. Mubita interview (see note 11); P. Mubanga, interview in Kitwe, 16 September 1976; Zelniker, “Patterns,” p. 174.

64. Department of African Affairs, Annual Report, 1949, 1952.

65. J. Clyde Mitchell, Nchanga Staff Records, Table 6.

66. Mwendapole, History, p. 13; Northern News, 9 December 1954.

67. CISB, 100.20.5, Vol. 1, meeting of Roan Branch, 30 December 1954; Mwendapole, History, pp. 12–14.

68. F. M. N. Heath, “No Smoke from the Smelter,” Corona (April 1953), p. 149.

69. In January 1953, a tribunal headed by I. C. W. Guillebaud, Professor of Economics at Cambridge, awarded substantial wage increases to black miners. (See Appendix F). Berger, Labour, pp. 120–21.

70. The AMWU apparently agreed that when a European job was broken down, pay could be broken down as well. CISB, 100:15, vol. 2, P. H. Truscott to Secretary, MCM, London, 14 October 1950.

71. RCM/CSD/KHB/83/8.F, Tribal Representatives Meeting, MCM, 3 and 4 November 1947.

72. RCM/CSD file 202.9, Meeting of the Council of all Tribal Representatives with the APM, Wusikili, 11 December 1952.

73. RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 3, Executive Committee, NRCM, 30 December 1952. Telegram NRCM to RST, London and AA, Johannesburg, 13 March 1953.

74. Mulford, Zambia, Chap. 1. Nkumbula studied at Makerere College and London, taught school on the Copperbelt, and was a member of the Western Province Regional Council.

75. Robert H. Bates, Unions, Parties, and Political Development: A Study of the Mineworkers in Zambia (New Haven, 1971), p. 126.

76. Robinson Puta was Nchanga’s branch chairman. Chapoloko was a branch secretary. Bates, Unions, p. 130; Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

77. Epstein papers, interview with Chapoloko, 5 October 1953.

78. Katilungu believed “the African people had most to gain from economic advancement and the Trade Union was the body which could best achieve this.” ZA/HA/43, vol. 4, Department of Labor, Monthly Report, July 1953; Mwendapole, History, Chap. 2.

79. Epstein, Politics, Chap. 7; Henderson, “Wage-Earners,” pp. 292, 295; Berger, Labour, pp. 96, 134, 137.

80. Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

81. Mwalwanda interview (see note 33) and G. Musumbulwa interview (see note 22).

82. Epstein, Politics, pp. 115, 119.

83. Mubita interview (see note 11) and Mubanga interview (see note 63); RACM, file 2/2, Minutes of the meeting of the APM and AMWU, 16 May 1951.

84. F. Musumbulwa interview (see note 34).

85. Epstein, Politics, pp. 120–21. Nkoloma claimed “Africans have noticed that the Bwanas are now respecting the Africans working for them. All this is due to the union.” RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 3, Notice by M. D. Nkoloma, acting general secretary of the union, 25 July 1952.

86. F. Musumbulwa interview (see note 34).

87. RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 3, Notice by M. D. Nkoloma, 25 July 1952.

88. RCM/CSD/KMA 16, conciliation proceedings between the companies and the AMWU, 23 September 1949.

89. RCM/CSD file 202.3, no. 2, meeting of the AMWU and the APMs, 11–12 January 1950.

90. Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

91. Hortense Powdermaker, Copper Town: Changing Africa (New York, 1962), Chap. 8.

92. Mubita interview (see note 11) and Mwendapole interview (see note 29). Epstein interviewed a large number of miners in 1953–54. They consistently supported the union. For example, one miner joined because “all mineworkers are members of the union. I do not remember anyone who is not a member.” Epstein papers, interview with Leo Chikambala, 22 January 1954.

93. The companies feared “Maybank and Williams [may] have engineered this between them so that the European Union can appear to be friendly with the African Union knowing perfectly well that the question of African progression is bound to come up sooner or later and with the hope that the two Unions can get together with some interested outside party such as the Mines International Federation and come up with some working arrangement at the expense of the Companies.” CISB: 100:20:9; Guillebaud Award. Telegram RST, London to NRCM, 12 January 1953, and from NRCM to RST, London, 12 January 1953.

94. CISB, 100:20:9, Guillebaud Arbitration, NRCM, “Social and Economic Conditions of Africans, a Comparison of Copperbelt and Village Conditions,” 19 December 1952.

95. Mubita interview (see note 11), Mwendapole interview (see note 29), and Mwalwanda interview (see note 33).

96. Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979); Peter C. Gutkind, The Emergent African Urban Proletariat, Occasional Paper Series, No. 8, Center for Developing Area Studies (Montreal, 1974).

97. E.J. Berg and J. Butler, “Trade Unions,” in James S. Coleman and Carl G. Rosberg, eds., Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa (Los Angeles, 1964); Bates, Unions, Chap. 7; see note 1.

98. Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

99. Epstein papers, Annual Conference of the AMWU, 25 September 1953.

100. Lameck Chisanga, interviewed by Dr. Carolyn Baylies, in Zambia, 11 January 1973.

101. Chembe Phiri, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976.

102. Mwalwanda interview (see note 33).

103. P. Kambafwile, interview in Mufulira, 9 September 1976.

104. Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

105. Mwalwanda interview (see note 33), Mwendapole interview (see note 29), and Sokota interview (see note 36).

106. Rhodesia Study Club, Newsletter, 1, no. 13 (October 1949). David Mulford, personal communication to Robert Bates, 17 June 1968, cited in Bates, Unions, p. 128.

107. Mwendapole interview (see note 29).

CHAPTER 7

1. Elena Berger, Labour, Race, and Colonial Rule: The Copperbelt from 1924 to Independence (Oxford, 1974); A. L. Epstein, Politics in an Urban African Community (Manchester, England, 1958); S. Zelniker, “Changing Patterns of Trade Unionism: The Zambian Case 1948–64” (Ph.D. diss., UCLA, 1970); Ian Henderson, “Wage-Earners and Political Protest in Colonial Africa: The Case of the Copperbelt,” African Affairs 72, no. 288 (July 1973).

2. Berger, Labour, p. 124. The Guillebaud Award, along with a sharp rise in production costs, cut into post-1949 profit margins; The Economist, 5 December 1953, p. 764.

3. For more detail, see Charles Perrings, “A Moment in the ‘Proletarianization’ of the New Middle Class: Race, Value and the Division of Labour in the Copperbelt, 1946–1966,” Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS), 6, no. 2 (April 1980).

4. Sir Ronald Prain, interview in Weybridge, England, 27 August 1982.

5. N. R. K. Davis, interview in Kitwe, 15 September 1976.

6. Dennis Etheredge, interview in Johannesburg, 12 October 1976; Prain interview (see note 4).

7. The Capricorn Africa Society, established in 1949 by Colonel David Stirling, advocated multi-racial alliances with the “right kind of blacks,” i.e., those westernized Africans willing to cooperate with liberal Europeans. This movement attracted a considerable following in Northern Rhodesia in the mid-1950s. Dr. A. Charles Fisher, interview in Kitwe, 21 August 1976; Robert I. Rotberg, Black Heart: Gore-Browne and the Politics of Multiracial Zambia (Berkeley, 1977), pp. 304–05.

8. Sir Theodore Gregory, Ernest Oppenheimer and the Economic Development of Southern Africa (Oxford, 1962), pp. 463, 473–83; R. L. Prain, “The Problem of African Advancement on the Copperbelt of Northern Rhodesia,” in Prain, Selected Papers 1953–57 (London, 1958).

9. Legislative Council Debates, 29 July 1954; RCM/CSD 202.17, no. 1, Executive Committee Meeting, NRCM, 23 November 1954.

10. Prain interview (see note 4); Harold K. Hochschild, “Labour Relations in Northern Rhodesia,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 206 (July 1956), p. 47.

11. Taylor Ostrander, interviewed at AMAX headquarters, Greenwich, Connecticut, 14 July 1981. Harold Hochschild telegramed Prain giving American Metal’s unqualified support for the advancement fight.

12. Berger, Labour, pp. 123–30; Prain interview (see note 4).

13. Hortense Powdermaker, Copper Town: Changing Africa (New York, 1962), pp. 89, 118. Helmuth Heisler, Urbanisation and the Government of Migration (London, 1974), p. 120.

14. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Mining Industry (Lusaka, 1966) (The Brown Report).

15. Andrew Torrance, interview in Kitwe, 23 August 1976; (R)-A. 11, African Personnel Manager’s Report, April 1950.

16. CISB, 100:20:9A, vol. 1, Summary of meeting with the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 6 January 1953.

17. Richard Bendix, Work and Authority in Industry (Los Angeles, 1963), p. 312; Belinda Bozzoli, “Managerialism and the Mode of Production in South Africa,” South African Labour Bulletin 3, no. 8 (October 1977): 29–41; Mike Hough, interview at Fort Hare University, Alice, South Africa, 4 October 1976.

18. CISB, 100:60:1, J. D. Rheinnalt Jones, “Health and Social Welfare Services for African Mineworkers and Their Families on Nkana, Nchanga, and Broken Hill,” 22 August 1949. This was a typical Human Relations strategy, focusing on conditions requiring less capital expenditure, such as welfare.

19. CISB, 100:60:1, J. D. Rheinnalt Jones, Report on a visit to Broken Hill, Rhokana, and Nchanga, April 1952.

20. Sir Ronald Prain, “The Responsibilities of a Mining Industry to the Community,” in Prain, Selected Papers 1953–57, p. 165; RCM/CSD/203.2.1, no. 1 H. R. Finn to R. L. Prain, 31 July 1951.

21. Etheredge interview (see note 6); Prain interview (see note 4).

22. CISB, 40.4, vol. 1, Executive Committee, NRCM, 17 July 1952; Minutes of the APMs Committee, NRCM, 2 July 1952 and 29 August 1952.

23. ZA/NR3/66, Department of Labor and Mines, Report on the Annual Conference, 9–10 October 1953.

24. Chris Cook, interview in East London, South Africa, 4 October 1976.

25. SEC/LAB/61, Labor Officers’ Conference, 24–25 June 1948; RCM/CSD/KM A 19, general manager, MCM to secretary, MCM, London, 20 August 1948.

26. RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 5, Executive Committee, NRCM, 16 April 1955.

27. RCM/CSD/202.17, no. 1, NRCM to all general managers, 5 May 1953; (R)-W.9, Welfare Officer, Nchanga, to APM, Nchanga, 5 December 1952.

28. Secretary General Simon Kaluwa, who had defeated Jameson Chapoloko (Chairman of Nkana branch) in the union’s first elections, refused to give Chapoloko a paid union post after his dismissal for leading an irregular strike. Robinson Puta, the union’s vice-president, rallied support for Chapoloko, and Kaluwa was dismissed. Northern News, 10 July 1952.

29. Berger, Labour, p. 137.

30. “The leaders [of MASA] are those who are friends with the Personnel Manager.” Epstein papers, interview with Kabuka, an Ngoni market capitaō with 200 tickets, 27 February 1954.

31. RCM/CSD/202.17, no. 1, NRCM to all general managers, 27 October 1954.

32. The Brown Report, p. 57; RCM/CSD 300.40.3, NRCM, African Housing, position at March 1958.

33. In 1953, 75% of housing was category 2; RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 4, Conditions of Employment, July 1953. By 1956, only 50% of the married workers lived in two-room houses (category 2); (R)-H.8, Executive Committee, NRCM, 20 April 1956.

34. (R)-A.9, A. Norton, Johannesburg to J. Phillemore, 16 April 1953; Richard Howie, interview in Johannesburg, 10 October 1976.

35. As Bromwich explained, “The primary objective of African Welfare is to create a stable, contented, and productive labor force. . . . It is not a charity, bonus, or bribe, but a logical means of achieving a definite result.” RCM/CSD/203.5, no. 2, Memorandum from chief of study to general manager, RACM, 9 July 1955.

36. “A discussion group was started earlier in the year, but because it developed political leanings was discontinued.” (R)-W.9 Rhokana, Report on welfare activities, 1954. Welfare Supervisor, Rhokana, to APM, Rhokana, July 1957.

37. (R)-W.9, W. Scrivener to GM, Rhokana, 7 April 1952; (RA), File on Training African Personnel Officers, “Duties of APOs in the African Township,” 18 November 1957.

38. CISB, 100:60:7, Native Affairs Dept., Johannesburg, to J. Phillemore, 13 March 1953; Sanford Chiwila, interview in Kitwe, 27 November 1975.

39. Horizon 1, no. 3, March 1959; RCM/CSD/203.5, no. 1, Welfare Report ending August 1954.

40. ZA/NR3/66, Minutes of a meeting of the Senior Labor Officer and the Labor Officers, 18 March 1953; Powdermaker, Copper Town, pp. 281–82.

41. Passmore reported 457 arrests for loafing in 1953 as opposed to 6,697 arrests in 1955. IAS, Passmore, “Report on the Loafer Problem on the Copperbelt,” 14 March 1956, 9. “Checks on unauthorized persons were made daily except Saturday and Sunday”; RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 6, African personnel manager, MCM, to general manager, MCM, 8 August 1955.

42. Gabriel Musumbulwa, interview at Luanshya, 30 August 1976; (R)-A.1O, APM, Confidential Report, Rhokana, 30 May 1956.

43. Sylvester Nkoma, interview in Luanshya, 3 September 1976; Epstein, Politics, p. 146.

44. By May 1954, union membership was down to one-third of the labor force. Northern News, 7 May 1954; Nkoma interview (see note 43).

45. Mineworker commitment to political action has been questioned because of incidents such as the Roan miners’ refusal to support Congress’s boycott of the Luanshya butchers in 1954. The miners refused to cooperate because the boycott was badly organized, not because they rejected political action. They realized that ineffective collective action would damage the nationalist cause. Epstein, Politics, pp. 142–47.

46. At the first meeting, Chapoloko told everyone he was pleased that “Luanshya was at last becoming conscious.” Epstein, Politics, p. 164.

47. Matthew Mwendapole, interview in Ndola, 3 August 1976; David C. Mulford, Zambia: The Politics of Independence 1957–1964 (Oxford, 1967), p. 43.

48. CISB, 100:20:5, vol. 1, meeting of the Roan Branch, AMWU, 30 December 1954.

49. CISB, 100.20.5, vol. 1, telephone conversation between F. B. Canning-Cooke and C. E. Cousins, labor commissioner, 4 January 1955.

50. CISB, 100:20:5, vol. 1, meeting of the Roan Branch, AMWU, 30 December 1954; Matthew Mwendapole, A History of the Trade Union Movement in Zambia up to 1968, University of Zambia, Institute for African Studies, Communication No. 13 (Lusaka, 1977), pp. 20–22.

51. RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 4, NRCM, 1955 Strike Diary.

52. RCM/CSD/202.7, no. 5, Executive Committee, NRCM, 19 February 1955.

53. The 1954 Annual Conference of the AMWU discussed the possibility of amalgamating with the European MWU. Chindele said, “We gave them hard conditions. One was that if we amalgamated no member of the union shall encourage the company to discharge his fellow member.” Epstein papers, interview with trade union leaders, 27 April 1954.

54. CISB, 10:27, vol. 10, Executive Committee, NRCM, 22 February 1955. Telegram RST, Lusaka to NRCM, 28 February 1955.

55. CISB, 100.20, Meeting between the African personnel managers and the AMWU, 5 December 1955; Patson Kambafwile, interview at Mufulira, 9 September 1976.

56. The Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Unrest in the Mining Industry in Northern Rhodesia in Recent Months (Lusaka, 1956), pp. 16–17, 30 (The Branigan Report).

57. The Branigan Report, pp. 18–22, 44.

58. Mwendapole interview (see note 47); P. Mubanga, interview in Kitwe, 16 September 1976.

59. Mwendapole interview (see note 47).

60. RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 7, meeting between AMWU, NRCM, and the Labor Department, 19 July 1956.

61. Fanny Musumbulwa, interview in Luanshya, 1 September 1976.

62. Davis interview (see note 5).

63. Mwendapole interview (see note 47).

64. Epstein papers, interview with W. Munthali, 27 February 1954.

65. RCM/CSD/202.17, no. 1, Secretary, MASA to NRCM, 31 May 1954; RCM/CSD/202.17, no. 2, NRCM to RST and AA, Salisbury, 16 March 1955; Lameck Chisanga, interviewed in Lusaka by Carolyn Baylies, 11 January 1973.

66. R. H. Bates, Unions, Parties and Political Development: A Study of Mineworkers in Zambia (New Haven, 1971), pp. 111–19.

67. John Chisata, interview in Mufulira, 14 September 1976.

68. Chembe Phiri, interview on Luanshya, 3 September 1976; Mwendapole, History, pp. 21–22.

69. The AMWU was affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), while other unions in Northern Rhodesia maintained ties with the World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU). The WFTU was more radical about political activism. Bates, Unions, pp. 131–32, 142.

70. Northern News, 24 October 1955; The Branigan Report, p. 40.

71. CISB, Evidence to the Branigan Commission: Companies’ Statement of Case, Appendix 29 and 30, pp. 220–27.

72. Philip Mason, The Birth of a Dilemma: The Conquest and Settlement of Rhodesia (London, 1958), p. 116.

73. The Branigan Report, p. 20.

74. The Branigan Report, pp. 17, 20–22, 25–26; Mwendapole, History, pp. 27–28.

75. Rhokana welfare programs dropped in attendance by 75%. RCM/CSD/203.5, no. 2, NRCM, Report on African Labor Boycotts, 30 August 1956.

76. Nkoma interview (see note 43). These songs chanted “the Makobo [deadfish, a word used to describe MASA members] are finished, the Union is all powerful”; RCM/CSD/203.2, no. 2, Sectional APM to Acting APM, 17 August 1956.

77. Henderson, “Wage-Earners,” p. 297; Bates, Unions, pp. 272–76, 484–85.

78. Mwendapole interview (see note 47).

79. Davis interview (see note 5).

80. Legislative Council Debates, 30 November 1956, 177; CISB, 100:20:25, Executive Committee, NRCM, 27 June 1957.

81. The African National Congress memorandum to the Branigan Commission, 29 October 1956. The Branigan Report, pp. 38, 53–55.

82. CISB, 100:20:20, vol. 1, NRCM to RST and AA, Salisbury, 14 September and 20 September 1956.

83. RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 8, NRCM and AMWU, informal discussion, 14 March 1957.

84. “Congress leaders now appeared to be taking the lead in Union affairs” (at Roan); RCM/CSD/202.5, no. 9, Executive Committee, NRCM, 30 April 1957.

85. The Central African Examiner, 8 November and 1 March 1959; Evidence to the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Mining Industry in Northern Rhodesia (Lusaka, 1962) (The Morison Commission). Companies’ statement of case, appendix I: Agreement of the companies and the AMWU, 12 March 1958 and 29 September 1959.

86. Mwendapole interview (see note 47).

87. R. Philpott, evidence to the Branigan Commission, 24 November 1956; (RA) file 33/1, L. C. Katilungu to AMWU members, 5 September 1956.

88. In 1957, union membership dropped to 6,560. Berger, Labour, p. 161; Kambafwile interview (see note 55).

89. Mwendapole interview (see note 47), Nkoma interview (see note 43), and Chisata interview (see note 67).

90. Chisata interview (see note 67).

91. CISB, 40:4, vol. 3, APMs Committee Meeting, NRCM, 21 December 1956 and 28 November 1958.

92. Langford Chibambo, interview in Luanshya, 12 September 1976.

93. Boniface Koloko, interview in Luanshya, 30 August 1976.

94. (R)-W.11, APM Monthly Report, October 1957; (R)-T.15, Meeting of the Township Area Committee, 14 January 1958; S. K. Ndhlovu, interview in Mufulira, 8 September 1976; Howie interview (see note 34).

95. RCM/CSD/202.28, no. 1, Inter-group Committee Meeting, Salisbury, 27 March 1957; (R)-H.8, O. B. Bennett, general manager, Rhokana, to consulting engineer, AA, Johannesburg, 31 May 1955.

96. Central African Examiner, 27 September 1958; Department of African Affairs, Annual Report, 1958; CISB, 100:51, vol. 2, R. Gabbitas, APM, to GM, Nchanga, 8 March 1960.

97. Davis interview (see note 5) and Etheredge interview (see note 6); Torrance interview (see note 15).

98. IAS, H. Franklin, “African Absenteeism,” mimeograph, 1959, pp. 1–3.

99. CISB, 100:60:7, vol. 1, John I. Hawkins, security officer, to NRCM, 13 January 1958.

100. Chiwila interview (see note 38).

101. Domeniko Chansa, youth club organizer, Nchanga, interviewed by D. Lehmann, 19 February 1958; H. Franklin, “An Investigation into the Social Background of the Advancees,” RACM, 1958, 3.

102. Information from the Office of the Registrar of Trade Unions, Lusaka, 2 October 1967; Kambafwile interview (see note 55).

103. The companies asked the Honeyman Commission to recommend ending the European union’s closed shop. The Commission refused but recommended that trade union members with a closed shop agreement should not strike before negotiating procedures had been exhausted. Report of the Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Stoppage in the Mining Industry in Northern Rhodesia in July, 1957, and to Make Recommendations for the Avoidance and Quick Settlement of Disputes in the Industry (Lusaka, 1957), pp. 32–33 (The Honeyman Report).

104. Berger, Labour, pp. 178–83; John Chisata, evidence to the Morison Commission.

105. Unlike Nkumbula, Kaunda rejected the 1958 elections set up by the Benson Constitution. Election disturbances were blamed on ZANC, which was subsequently banned. In 1959, Kaunda formed a new party, UNIP; David C. Mulford, Zambia: The Politics of Independence (London, 1967), pp. 85, 100. In the first six months of 1963, UNIP held 17 meetings with 42,350 people, while ANC had 3 meetings with 840 people. M. J. Adams, D. C, Kitwe, evidence to the Commission of Inquiry into Unrest on the Copperbelt, July–August 1963 (Lusaka, 1963), p. 212 (The Whelan Commission).

106. Pascale Sokota, interview in Kitwe, 28 August 1976; J. Malik Chipako, interview in Kitwe, 14 September 1976.

107. Ndhlovu interview (see note 94).

108. Sir Ronald Prain, Reflections on an Era (Surrey, England, 1981), p. 143. The Monckton Commission was set up to review the Federal constitution; Mulford, Zambia, p. 116.

109. Mwendapole interview (see note 47). John Chisata believed Katilungu’s political behavior antagonized the mines; Chisata interview (see note 67).

110. Chisata interview (see note 67). UNIP decided to fight the 1962 General Election. UNIP leaders believed a strike during the election campaign would alienate European voters, so asked the union not to strike. Union leaders reluctantly agreed, but this sacrifice caused some hard feelings. Berger, Labour, p. 215.

111. Chisata interview (see note 67). In 1959 the Trade Union Congress split into two sections, one dominated by AMWU and MASA. In 1961 Chisata agreed to reunify the two sections, and the new organization was called the United Trade Union Congress (UTUC). The AMWU fell out with the UTUC in 1963 over the issue of political control. Mulford, Zambia, pp. 173–74. Bates described the UTUC as “the labor wing of UNIP”; Bates, Unions, p. 132.

112. Zambia Pilot (June 1963), p. 9.

113. Peter Harries-Jones, Freedom and Labour: Mobilization and Political Control on the Zambian Copperbelt (Oxford, 1975), pp. 166–67; Chisata interview (see note 67).

114. In 1964, more than 2,000 miners left the AMWU for the new union. CISB, 100:47, vol. 8, N. R. K. Davis to the general managers, 30 August 1963.

115. Harries-Jones, Freedom, p. 168; Chisata interview (see note 67).

116. Davis interview (see note 5); Northern Star, 31 May 1963.

117. On the eve of independence, the companies adopted a dual wage scale with separate rates for Africans and Europeans; The Brown Report, pp. 21–22, 33–35, 45–46.

118. Alfred Mwalwanda, interview in Luanshya, 13 September 1976.

119. Zambia Pilot (June 1963), p. 9.

120. Several informants stated that trade union leaders would be running the government if they had cooperated with the party, and suggested that workers would be treated better.

CONCLUSION

1. Charles Perrings, Black Mineworkers in Central Africa (New York, 1979).

2. Robert H. Bates, Unions, Parties and Political Development: A Study of the Mineworkers in Zambia (New Haven, 1971); Elliot Berg and Jeffrey Butler, “Trade Unions,” in James S. Coleman and Carl G. Rosberg, Jr., eds., Political Parties and National Integration in Tropical Africa (Los Angeles, 1964).

3. Douglas G. Anglin and Timothy M. Shaw, Zambia’s Foreign Policy: Studies in Diplomacy and Dependence (Boulder, Colorado, 1979). Shaw has subsequently moved away from this position. T. M. Shaw, “The Political Economy of Zambia: Recession without Resolution” (mimeograph, 1981).

4. See the works of Sharon Stichter, Charles van Onselen, and Ian Phimister in the Bibliography.

5. John S. Saul, “The ‘Labour Aristocracy’ Thesis Reconsidered,” in R. Sandbrook and R. Cohen, The Development of an African Working Class (Toronto, 1975); Richard Jeffries, “The Labour Aristocracy? Ghana Case Study,” Review of African Political Economy 3 (May–October 1975); Robert Davies, Capital, State and White Labour in South Africa (Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, 1979).

6. Charles van Onselen, Chibaro: African Mine Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1900–1933 (London, 1976); Jim Silver, “Class Struggles in Ghana’s Mining Industry,” Review of African Political Economy, 12 (1978); Paul M. Lubeck, “Class Formation of the Periphery: Class Consciousness and Islamic Nationalism among Nigerian Workers” (mimeograph, 1980); R. Sandbrook and J. Arn, The Labouring Poor and Urban Class Formation: The Case of Greater Accra, Monograph Series No. 12, Center for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University (Montreal, 1977).

7. Frederick A. Johnstone, “Racially Structured Capitalism and South African Labour History,” seminar paper, Center for Developing-Area Studies, McGill University, 29 November 1979.

8. R. I. Rotberg, The Rise of Nationalism in Central Africa: The Making of Malawi and Zambia, 1873–1964 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1965); Thomas Hodgkins, Nationalism in Colonial Africa (London, 1956).