Absenteeism, 47, 103, 153, 197 n.48. See also Discipline; Labor control
Advancement, 24, 121–23, 136–38; The Dalgleish Commission, 122; four-way talks of 1954, 137; three-party conference of 1948, 123. See also Labor stabilization; Mines African Salaried Staff Association (MASA)
African Mineworkers’ Union (AMWU), 17, 24; branch elections (1954), 143; branch offices, 132–33; corporate attitude towards, 116, 120–24, 145, 149–50; demands for housing and compound, 130–31; early collective labor action, 124–25; establishment, 119–21, 201 n.42; and European Mineworkers’ Union, 127, 207 n.53; and Labor Department, 116, 124; membership, 120–21, 125, 130, 150, 154, 203 n.92, 208 n.88; politics, 128–29, 150; public meetings, 130–31; Recognition Agreement, 121; after rolling strikes, 151; solidarity, 131–32; structure, 121; and tribal representatives, 127–28. See also Political class consciousness
African National Congress, Northern Rhodesian (ANC), 17–18, 128–129, 133–34, 148, 151; Supreme Action Council, 128–29. See also Nkumbula, Harry; Political class consciousness
African nationalism: opposition to Federation, 128–29; rise of, 17–18; and trade unions, 134–35, 155–57. See also African National Congress; United National Independence Party; Zambia African National Congress
Agriculture, 26; government policy, 26–27; land reserves, African, 17; white farmers, 16. See also Federation; Northern Rhodesian government
American Metal Company (later American Metal Climax, Inc.), 20, 176 n.17
Anglo-American Corporation: establishment of, 20–21; headquarters, 25, 51; labor policy, 37–38, 81–82; paternalism, 138–43; response to AMWU, 112; worker contentment, 55. See also Bwana Mkubwa Mine Company; Copper mining companies; Mufulira Copper Mines; Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines; Rhokana Corporation
Bamba, 16; role in 1935 strike, 57–58
Beatty, Sir Alfred Chester, 20, 175 n. 11
Bedford, Rev. Frank, 85, 101. See also United Missions in the Copperbelt
Beer brewing, 42, 52, 77, 183, n.72, 185 n.131
Boss boys, 24, 42; boycott, Luanshya, 109–10; committees, 103–4, 106–9; early union leadership, 119; in 1940 strike, 83–84; relations with European miners, 199 n.83. See also Labor aristocracy; Labor, skill levels of; Labor stabilization
Bourgeoisie. See Classes
Boycott, Luanshya (1946), 109–10, 206 n.45. See also Boss boys
British Labor government, 105; trade union policy, 111–12. See also Colonial office
British South Africa Company, 13, 16–17, 178 n.50; mineral rights, 17, 19, 25–26. See also Rhodes, Cecil
Broken Hill Mine Company, 32, 40. See also Anglo-American Corporation
Bwana Mkubwa Mine Company, 19–20, 32. See also Anglo-American Corporation
Capital, 6–7; and the state, 8. See also Copper mining companies, profits
Capricorn Africa Society, 204 n.7
Chamber of Mines, Northern Rhodesian, 33, 99–100; relations with Northern Rhodesian government, 99–100, 104; response to AMWU, 114–15. See also Copper mining companies
Chapoloko, Jameson, 121, 128–29, 144, 205 n.28
Chingola. See Copperbelt
Chisata, John, 155, 209 n.109. See also Political class consciousness
Class: action, 4–8, 11, 162–63 (see also Labor action, collective); analysis, 3–4, 9–12, 162–63; consciousness, 4–8, 162; formation in Africa, 6, 9, 11; identity, 131; social, 5–6; structure, 4–7, 162–63; struggle, 4–5, 7–9, 173 n.13, 159–62 (see also Ideology; State, the)
Classes: bourgeoisie, 5; petty bourgeoisie (middle class), 5, 17, 137, 140, 148–49; proletariat (working class), 5, 159–63; relations between, 6, 162–63 (see also Class, struggle)
Clerks, mine, 24, 104, 108–9, 139–41, 182 n.55; early union leadership, 119; in 1935 strike, 55, 72; in 1940 strike, 84, 90. See also Labor aristocracy; Mines African Salaried Staff Association
Clothing, European-style, 63, 69, 189 n.70
Colonial Office: African advancement, 122; and African Mineworkers’ Union, 111–12; attitude towards companies, 26; and Federation, 18–19; financial self-sufficiency, 52; labor policy, 17, 27, 80–81, 100, 111–12; establishment of protectorate, 17; during World War II, 100–101
Communication: between compounds, 63; within compounds, 62–63, 86; about labor conditions, 31. See also Labor control; Newspapers; Race relations
Compounds, mine, 38–45, 64, 78; compound manager, 24, 39–40, 45–46, 181 n.54, 182 nn.56, 57 and 59; cooperation in, 66–67, 71–72; early conditions, 181 n.36; occupational divisions, 141–42; registration within, 142–43; reorganization in 1949, 123; South African system, 29–30, 39–40. See also Health conditions, mine; Housing; Labor control; Recreation; Welfare, mine
Comrie, William, 112, 115–17, 119–20, 130, 133, 200 n.16
Copper, Northern Rhodesian: discovery of, 19; flotation methods, 20; open-pit, 21; pricing, 21–22, 167; production, 21–22, 167; profitability, 21–23, 177 n.37, 204 n.2; and the Zambian political economy, 25. See also Copperbelt
Copper Exporters, Inc., 20
Copper mining companies, Northern Rhodesian: and the AMWU, 51, 114–16, 123–24, 140–41, 152; competition between, 33; cooperation, 33, 98–99 (see also Chamber of Mines, Northern Rhodesian); and Labor Department, 100; labor policy, 23, 38, 82, 138–39; London connections, 51, 77, 100; paternalism, 138–43; profits, 22–23; relations with Northern Rhodesian government, 51, 76–77, 81, 99–100; taxpayers, 25–26, 177 n.48. See also Anglo-American Corporation; Rhodesian Selection Trust
Copperbelt: Chingola, 13; geography of, 13; geology of, 13, 16; Kitwe, 13; Luanshya, 13, 42–43 (see also Boycott, Luanshya; Roan Antelope Copper Mines); Mufulira, 13; Ndola, 13; population of, 13
Cost of living, 69, 85, 107, 198 n.57
Creech Jones, Arthur, 100, 112
Cross, Rev. Arthur, 88, 91, 101. See also United Missions in the Copperbelt
Culture, working-class, 6, 9, 162–63. See also Ideology
Dalgleish Commission, The. See Advancement
Dancing: traditional, 62–63; European, 63, 69. See also Mbeni, traditional dancing
Depression, the, 17, 21, 46–52
Desertion on the mines, 47, 103, 188 nn.55–56. See also Absenteeism
Discipline, industrial, 49–50, 61, 81–82, 151; emergency powers of 1942, 99, 103; opposition to collective labor action, 70–71. See also Labor control
Dismissal, 49–50. See also Labor control
Elwell, Archibald, 102–3, 106, 109–10. See also Welfare, government
Ethnicity, 61; in 1935 strike, 56, 58; in 1940 strike, 87. See also Tribal representatives
European Mineworkers’ Union, 24, 82–83, 93; African branches, 110–11; cooperation with AMWU, 127; equal pay, 122, 123; impact on African strike (1940), 84–85, 93–94. See also Mineworkers, European; Williams, Ronald
False consciousness, 6. See also Labor aristocracy
Federation, 27–28, 128–29; and African advancement, 137–38; African middle-class as buffer group, 137, 140, 155; dissolution of, 156; economics of, 18–19; opposition to worker political action, 144, 149–50. See also Northern Rhodesian government; Settlers
Field, H. H., 33, 40, 90, 98, 124. See also Mufulira Copper Mines
Gabbitas, F., 40, 182 n.61. See also Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines
Geddes, Sir Auckland, 20, 176 n.20, 185 n.128. See also Anglo-American Corporation
General managers, copper mining companies: Frank Ayer, 50, 55, 94; David Irwin, 35, 42; R. M. Peterson, 35; J. D. Tallant, 48. See also Copper mines companies, labor policy
Goodwin, Brian, 93, 100, 115–16, 120, 123, 194 n.97. See also European Mineworkers’ Union
Gore-Browne, Sir Stewart, 87, 108, 111
Governors, Northern Rhodesian: Sir Ronald Storrs, 50; Sir Hubert Young, 50–51; Waddington, 111–12. See also Provincial Administration
Grades. See Labor, skill levels of
Gramsci, A., 5. See also Ideology
Guillebaud Tribunal, 126–27, 132–33. See also Wages
Health conditions of mines, 41–42, 49
Historical background of Northern Rhodesia, 16–19
Hochschild, Harold, 20, 176 n. 17
Hochschild, Walter, 176 n. 17
Honeyman Commission, 154, 209 n.103. See also European Mineworkers’ Union
Housing, mine compound, 41, 79, 139, 184 n.105, 206 n.33; in the depression, 48. See also Compounds
Irwin, David. See General managers, copper mining companies
Johannesburg Conference, 144. See also Copper mining companies
Kaluwa, Simon, 120–21. See also African Mineworkers’ Union
Katilungu, Lawrence, 115, 120–21, 125–26, 144, 148, 150; loss of union presidency, 155; and political action, 128–29, 133–34, 148; and stabilization, 131. See also African Mineworkers’ Union
Kaunda, Kenneth, 19, 155. See also United National Independence Party
Kazembe (Luapula region), 16
Kitwe. See Copperbelt
Labor, married, 47–48, 77–78, 97, 118, 138, 165, 180 n.32, 184 n.99, 190 n.10, 200 n.27; Nkana and Nchanga, 36–37; Roan, 36. See also Labor stabilization, life-style
Labor, migrant, 32, 66; consciousness, 10, 159–61; foreign recruitment, 32–33; mobility before depression, 31–32; outside Northern Rhodesia, 76. See also Southern Rhodesia, white miners from; Union Miniere du Haut Katanga
Labor, skill levels of (grades), 23–25, 98, 121, 184 n.98; early years, 30–31; relation to orebodies, 30; technical demands of industry, 23–24; union membership, 130. See also Boss boys; Wages
Labor action, collective, 65–66, 70; and the compound, 71–72; and consciousness, 160–63; in the 1940 strike, 91
Labor aristocracy, 5, 10, 161, 163, 174, n.29. See also Classes; Mines African Salaried Staff Association
Labor control, 44–46, 98–99, 101–3; paternalism, 138–43; registration (citupas), 44. See also, Compounds; Discipline; Welfare, mine
Labor Department, Northern Rhodesian: attitude towards AMWU, 111–12, 115–17; control of unions, 116, 123; establishment of, 100; trade union officer (see Comrie); on union politics, 133–34. See also Northern Rhodesian government, labor policy
Labor enclave, 152–57. See also Paternalism
Labor policy. See Colonial Office, labor policy; Copper mining companies, labor policy; Northern Rhodesian government, labor policy
Labor recruitment, 26, 32–34, 47, 76, 180 n.19
Labor reserve, 16
Labor stabilization, 53; at Anglo-American Company, 37; before depression, 34–37; early leaders, 118–19; length of employment, 24, 36–37, 77–78, 88–94, 97, 117–18, 138, 152, 166, 180 n.33, 184 n.100; life-style, 63, 69, 89; the 1935 strike, 72–74; the 1940 strike, 91, 94–95; Rhodesian Selection Trust, 36; and the union, 118–21, 131; without urbanization, 77, 97; and worker representation, 98–99. See also Boss boys; Labor, married; Mines African Salaried Staff Association
Labor supply, 24, 30–34, 47, 66, 183 n.80, 189 n.77; before depression, 30–34; and discipline, 50; rationalization, 34, 69, 103, 152; shortage, 75–77. See also Labor recruitment
Languages: Chilapalapa, 62; Town Bemba, 62. See also Communication; Compounds
Law, P.J., 103, 109, 116. See also Labor Department
Legislative Council, Northern Rhodesian, 17, 26, 122, 137; attitude towards African unions, 111. See also Northern Rhodesian government
Lewanika, Godwin, 194 nn.92–93. See also Welfare, mine
Loafers in mine compounds, 142–43, 206 n.41. See also Labor control
Lozi, 16
Luanshya. See Copperbelt
Luyt, Richard, 108. See also Labor Department
Maybank, Frank, 110, 115, 120, 127, 203 n.93. See also European Mineworkers’ Union
Mbeni, 155–56; traditional dancing, 67, 73, 186 n.6. See also Dancing
Middle class, African. See Classes, petty bourgeoisie
Mines African Salaried Staff Association (MASA), 25, 140–46, 148–52; special housing, 152; and United Mineworkers’ Union, 155–56. See also Classes, petty bourgeoisie; Labor aristocracy
Mines Official Salaried Staff Association, 137
Mineworkers, African, 17. See also Race relations
Mineworkers, European, 30–31, 39; influence on African workers, 109; initial conditions for, 30; population, 17–18, 30. See also European Mineworkers’ Union; Race relations; Settlers
Monckton Commission, 155
Moore, Rev. R. J. B., 80, 92, 101–2. See also United Missions in the Copperbelt
Mufulira. See Copperbelt
Mufulira Copper Mines, 21; orebodies, 30; labor policy 35–36. See also Copper mining companies
Mwendapole, Matthew, 132
Native Industrial Labor Advisory Board, 77
Native Labor Association, 33–34. See also Labor recruitment
Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines, Ltd. (the mine), 21, 23, 33; compound, 41; welfare, 44. See also Anglo-American Corporation
Ndola. See Copperbelt
Newspapers on the mines, 82, 142. See also Communication; Welfare, mine, and politics
Ngoni, 16
Nkoloma, Matthew D., 203 n.85
Nkoma, Sylvester, 143–44
Nkumbula, Harry, 19, 128–29, 148, 155. See also African National Congress
Northern Rhodesian government: attitude towards copper mining companies, 26–27, 50–51, 77; establishment of Protectorate, 17; expenditure on Africans, 27, 178 n.57; financial status, 50; Labor Department, 124; labor policy, 32–33, 38–39, 50–52, 112, 115–16, 124, 144–45, 149–50; labor recruitment, 76–77; paternalism, 27; servile labor measures, 29–30, 44; union politics, 133–34. See also Labor Department; Provincial administration
Nyasa miners, 34, 39; in 1935 strike, 55, 58, 72, 184 n.101. See also Clerks, mine
Oppenheimer, Sir Ernest, 20–21, 33, 138–39, 175 n.13; on African advancement, 137. See also Anglo-American Corporation
Paternalism: colonial office, 27; government, 27; mining companies, 140–43. See also Welfare, government; Welfare, mine
Petty bourgeoisie. See Classes
Pim Commission, 80
Police, mine, 45–46, 60, 84, 124, 152; Mines African Police Association, 145; in 1935 strike, 55–56, 60; in 1940 strike, 84; in 1955 strike, 146–47. See also Strikes
Police, government, 38; in 1935 strike, 56–57; in 1955 strike, 146–47. See also Strikes
Political class consciousness, 133–35, 147, 153–57, 206 nn.45–46; corporate attitudes towards, 151. See also Class, consciousness
Political parties, African. See African nationalism; ANC; UNIP; ZANC
Poulantzas, N., 5–6
Prain, Sir Ronald, 138–39; on advancement, 137; on paternalism, 139. See also Rhodesian Selection Trust
Proletarianization, 10, 172 n.8, 174 n.27; and class consciousness, 10, 160–63. See also Class, analysis; Class, consciousness
Provincial Administration, 51; and copper mining companies, 38, 117; inspection of mines, 38–39, 51; and Labor Department, 100, 117, 124; in 1935 strike, 55; taxation, 51. See also Labor Department; Northern Rhodesian government
Puta, Robinson, 121, 127–29, 144, 202 n.76
Race relations, mine, 188 n.42, 199 n.83; aggravated by mining companies, 115–16; and compound conditions, 64; and stabilization, 64–65; and strike action, 109
Rations, mine, 49, 59, 183 n.71
Recognition Agreement, 121, 124. See also African Mineworkers’ Union
Recreation, mine, 43, 49, 80, 139–42, 152; football, 80. See also Welfare, mine
Rheinnalt Jones, J. D., 138–40. See also Labor Control; Paternalism
Rhodes, Cecil, 16, 19. See also British South Africa Company
Rhodesian Selection Trust, 20–21; headquarters, 25, 51; labor policy, 35–36, 48, 55, 82; paternalism, 138–41. See also Mufulira Copper Mines; Roan Antelope Copper Mines
Rhokana Corporation, Ltd. (Nkana), 20–21; conditions, 32; labor supply, 32; Nkana compound, 41; orebodies, 30; welfare, 43. See also Anglo-American Corporation
Roan Antelope Copper Mine, 21; labor policy, 35; orebodies, 30; welfare, 42–43, 50. See also Rhodesian Selection Trust
Roan Consolidated Copper Mines (formerly RST), 23
Saffery, William, 97, 102, 107–8, 196 n.29, 198 n.57. See also Labor Department
Sandford, T. F. (Secretary for Native Affairs), 76, 87. See also Provincial Administration
Schaefer, Benjamin, 40, 45, 55, 182 n.57. See also Mufulira Copper Mines
Scrivener, William J., 40, 79, 87, 98, 182 n.59; Brain Trust, 119. See also Rhokana Corporation
Settlers, Northern Rhodesian, 17, 26–28; and Colonial Office, 17, 116; in Federation, 18, 123; in Legislative Council, 122–23; opposition to British South Africa Company, 16–17; population, 16–18; white miners, 30–31. See also Mineworkers, European
Sokota, Pascale, 110
South Africa: white miners from, 39; white radicals, 115. See also European Mineworkers’ Union
Southern Rhodesia: Northern Rhodesians working in, 32, 76; Shamva strike, 70; Wankie mines, wages, 34
Spearpoint, C. F., 40, 81, 98, 182 n.56. See also Roan Antelope Copper Mines
Spies in mine compounds, 46, 151
Sports in mine compounds. See Recreation
State, the: colonial in Africa, 8–10, 26, 81; post-colonial, 4, 10; settlers, 10. See also Northern Rhodesian government
Strikes: abortive (1933), 70; African (1935), 48, 55–61, 72–73; African (1940), 75, 83–88, 91, 98; African (1952), 126–27, 132–33; African (1955), 144–48; African (1962), 155; Branigan Commission, 149; complaints, 59–61, 85–86; European (1940), 84–85; Forster Commission, 98; Guillebaud Award, 132–33; leadership, 72–73, 83; organization, 58–59, 86–87, 91; rolling strikes (1956), 148–50; Russell Commission, 48, 59; state of emergency (1956), 148–49
Stubbs, William, 104, 107, 109, 116. See also Labor Department
Tonga, 16
Trade Union Congress, Northern Rhodesian, 128–29, 147, 157; political action subcommittee, 128–29, 134; and United Trade Union Congress, 155–56, 210 n. 111
Tribal representatives, 46, 58–59, 98–99, 103, 117, 119, 124, 127–28; in 1940 strike, 84
Union Miniere du Haut Katanga, 16, 19, 32, 34, 41, 180 n.31; end of Northern Rhodesian recruiting, 32. See also Labor migration
Unions: See African Mineworkers’ Union; European Mineworkers’ Union; United Mineworkers’ Union
United Federal Party, 153
United Mineworkers’ Union, 155–56, 210 n.114. See also Mines African Salaried Staff Association
United Missions in the Copperbelt, 79–80, 91–92, 101–2; leadership training, 91–92; schools, 79, 89. See also Bedford, Frank; Cross, Arthur; Greig, David; Moore, R. J. B.
United National Independence Party (UNIP), 19, 154–55; relations with AMWU, 155–57. See also African nationalism
Urban Advisory Council, 105, 109
Wages, 24, 34, 47, 78, 90, 98, 121–22, 131, 168–70, 180 nn.30–31, 188 n.52, 193 nn.78 and 80; before depression, 34–35; 1964 wage structure, 156, 210 n.117; outside Northern Rhodesia, 32, 34; unitary wage scale, 154. See also Cost of living; Labor, skill levels of
Welensky, Roy, 100, 123, 201 n.51
Welfare, government, 80–81, 101. See also Elwell, Archibald
Welfare, mine, 42–43, 48–49, 77, 79, 80, 101, 141–43, 152; after 1953, 139–43; and politics, 142–43, 206 n.36; schools, 191 nn.21–22; for staff wives, 152; for women, 79, 141. See also United Missions in the Copperbelt
Welfare societies, 17, 105–6, 197 n.47; Kitwe African Society, 102, 106; Luanshya African Welfare and Recreation Society, 105, 109. See also Elwell, Archibald
Whelan Commission, 154–55
Williams, A. T., 72–101. See also Provincial Administration
Williams, Ronald, 127, 145. See also European Mineworkers’ Union
Women: beer brewing, 42; in compounds, 35, 69, 88–89; in politics, 155; and the union, 130, 146; in strikes, 83, 126–27, 144, 148–49; welfare, 79, 141–42. See also Beer brewing; Welfare, mine
Worker consciousness, 65, 90–91, 94–95. See also Class consciousness
Worker identity, 61–62; and corporate labor policy, 63; and stabilized workers, 62–63
Worker representation, desire for, 108–9. See also African Mineworkers’ Union; Boss boys
Worker solidarity, in 1940, 85, 94–95. See also Labor action, collective
Working class in Africa. See Class, analysis; Classes, proletariat
Works committees, 114–15, 199 n.4
World War II, production during, 22
Youth on the mines, 79, 193 n.75; political action, 155; training schemes, 79, 142. See also Welfare, mine
Zambia, independence, 19
Zambia African National Congress (ZANC), 19, 154. See also African nationalism
Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation Limited (ZIMCO), 23