Abramovitz, Bessie, 124–125, 130, 185; marriage to Sidney Hillman, 123–133
ACTWU. See Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union
ACWA. See Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America
Adams, Abigail, 10
Addams, Jane, 124
Adler Brothers, 107
Advance (ACWA), 209–211, 221–223
AFL. See American Federation of Labor
AFL-CIO: anti-immigrant position, 291; Industrial Union Department, xx; present-day organizing, 292
AFSC. See American Friends Service Committee
Alpern, Libby, (UGWA), 101–102
Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union, 286; present-day policies, 291–293
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America: in Baltimore strike, 201–204; 207–223; in Chicago strike, 131–133; early years, 88–90; in Farah strike, 191, 228, 243, 248, 250, 262–264, 270–276; male domination of, xiv, xv, xviii–xx, 136, 206; Out-of-Town Organization Committee, 215; Women’s Department, 209, 216–218; women participants in, xiv, 185–186, 195–196, 203–207, 213–223, 260
Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America Biennial Convention: Second, 207; Third, 214; Tenth, 222; Twelfth, 220
American Federation of Labor, 88–90, 119, 175, 201, 207, 219
American Friends Service Committee, xix–xx
American Institute for Free Labor Development, 291
“Americanizing” immigrants, xiii, 12–13, 125
American Labor Party, 223
“A Mistaken Charity,” 11
Ansorge Brothers, 195–196, 223
Anthony, Susan B., 15, 60, 104
Apparel industry: before mechanization, 23–25, 27–30; decentralization of, 39, 51–52; health hazards in, 285–286; movement west and south of, xvi, 3, 131, 190, 220, 223, 229, 279; during 19th century, 39–44, 84–85, 97–98; post–World War I, 189–190; post–World War II, xvi, 281; present-day conditions of, xvi–xviii, xx–xxi, 191–192; 223–224, 285–287; sex segregation of duties in, xi–xii, 96, 116–118, 188–189, 204; sewing machine introduced into, xii, 26, 41–50, 71; and Third World, xvi, xvii, 190, 192, 275, 279, 281; in World War II, 211
Ashbridge, Elizabeth, 3–4
Asian Law Caucus, xix
Asian workers, xvi, xix, 185, 187. See also Chinese immigrant workers
Association of Waist and Dress Manufacturers (New York), 169, 171
Baker, W. E., sewing machine inventor, 35
Balch, Emily Greene (Wellesley College), xiv
Baltimore apparel industry, 84, 198
Baltimore Clothiers’ Board of Trade, 197
Barnum, Gertrude, (WTUL), 124, 146, 155
Bellamy, George, (Hiram House), 158
Bellanca, August, (ACWA), 203, 207, 212, 215
Bellanca, Dorothy Jacobs, (ACWA): as advocate of women in union, 208–224, 216–218; as young woman, 185–186, 195–198, 202; and Baltimore strike, 203–206; and CIO, 219–220; as General Executive Board member, 207, 209, 212; and runaway shop drive, 215–216
Bellanca, Frank, (ACWA), 203
Belmont, Alva, New York socialite, 167
BFL. See Baltimore Federation of Labor
Black, Morris, Cleveland shop owner, 159, 164
Black women, xvi, 3; ideal of domesticity of, xii; as seamstresses and slaves, 7–9
Blodgett and Lerow Co., early production of sewing machines, 31–34
Bloor, Ella Reeve, (Socialist Party), 103
Blumberg, Hyman, (ACWA), 107
Bohemian immigrant workers: in Chicago, 117, 130; in Cleveland, 148–150, 161
Brayman, Ida, death in Rochester strike, 102–103, 110
Bread Upon the Waters, 187
Brooks Brothers, 41
Busse, Mayor Fred, (Chicago), 127
Butterick, Ebinezer, 12
Casey, Josephine, (ILGWU), 149–152, 154–157, 163
Cassetteri, Anna, Chicago garment worker, 125
Catholic Church: and Farah strike, 191, 251–252, 263; and New York Hispanic immigrants, 288
Chavez, Cesar, 252
Chicago apparel industry, 84, 115–118
Chicago Daily Socialist, 123–124, 128–129
Chicago Federation of Labor, 115, 123, 127, 128, 130, 132
Chicago police, relationship to strike, 126, 128
Chicago strike, 201–202; beginning of, 114, 120–121; manufacturers’ reactions to, 119, 121, 127, 130; relief for strikers during, 124–125, 202; settlement of, 131
Chicago Wholesale Clothiers’ Association, 119, 121, 129–131
Chicano workers, xviii, 231, 237, 240–243, 250; union organizing of, 168, 176, 243–248
Chinese immigrant workers, xvii–xviii, 188
CIO. See Congress of Industrial Organizations
Clark, Edward, president I. M. Singer Co., 35
Cleveland apparel industry, 84, 147–148
Cleveland Chamber of Commerce, 152–153
Cleveland Citizen, 154
Cleveland Council of Jewish Women, 158; Council Educational Alliance, 158–159
Cleveland Employers Association, 149
Cleveland Federation of Labor, 157
Cleveland Garment Manufacturers Association, 152
Cleveland Plain Dealer, 148, 151, 159, 162
Cleveland Press, 151
Cleveland strike: beginning of, 150; demands of strikers in, 149–150; manufacturers’ reactions to, 150, 152–153; relief for strikers during, 157–158
Cleveland Women’s Suffrage League, 156
Cleveland YMCA, during strike, 157–158
Cloak Manufacturers Association (Cleveland), 150, 153
Clothing industry. See Apparel industry
Clothing, men’s: 18th-century, 4; 19th-century, 8, 27, 29
Clothing, women’s: 18th-century, 4–5, 10, 21; 19th-century, 8–9, 12–13, 29; 20th-century, 189–190
CLUW. See Coalition of Labor Union Women
Coalition of Labor Union Women, xx
Cohen, Fannia, (ILGWU), 180, 187
Collado, Carmen, New York garment worker, 289
Colliers, 117
Coman, Katharine, Chicago reformer, 125
Common Good, The, 105
Congress of Industrial Organizations, 219
Consumers League, 223
Craft, Ellen, black reformer, xii
Curtis, Ellen Louise, (Madame Demorest), 11–12
Darrow, Clarence, 131
Dawley, Jay O., (Cleveland Employers Association), 149
Debs, Eugene, 129
Demorest, Madame. See Curtis, Ellen Louise
Department stores, 13, 29, 61; architectural development, 62–64; A. T. Stewart’s, 64–74
Diaz, Olga, (ACTWU), 286
Donnelly, John, death in Chicago strike, 129
Dreier, Margaret. See Robins, Margaret Dreier
Dressmakers, 10; economic independence of, 11–12, 21–22; disappearance of, 49, 189; effect of sewing machine on, 45, 49–52
Dudley, Helena Stuart, settlement house leader, xiv
Dvorak, Robert, reporter for Chicago Daily Socialist, 128–129
Dyche, John, (ILGWU), 149
Eastman, George, 105
Ecuadorian immigrant workers, 279, 282, 288
Edwin A. Kelley Company, 43
El Paso: geographical heritage of, 235–237; institutionalized discrimination in, 231–232, 240–242; labor market of, 236–237
El Paso Times, 249
Emerson, Zelie P., Chicago reformer, 125
Ethnic groups. See specific ethnic groups
Etz, Anna Cadogan, New York suffragist, 104
“Factory girl,” 106–107
F & M Co., 280
Farah, James, 229
Farah, Mansour, 229
Farah Manufacturing Company: antiunionism, 227, 243–247, 266–272; economic difficulties of, 262–263, 265–268, 273–274; founding of, 228–230; health problems of workers at, 232–234; unfair labor practices of, 230–232, 235
Farah national boycott campaign, 251, 253, 260, 262–263
Farah Relief Fund, 255
Farah strike, xviii, 191; beginning of, 246–248; financial difficulties for strikers during, 254–255; racial tensions during, 249–250. See also El Paso
Farah, Willie, 227–230, 243, 250; influence in El Paso by, 249, 263–264
Fashion, 8, 12–13, 27–28, 281. See also Clothing, women’s
Federal Emergency Relief Administration, 222
Federation of Jewish Charities, 159
Feiss, Julius, Cleveland manufacturer, 159
Feit, Isadore, (ILGWU), 148–149
Feminist and labor movements, xiv–xv, 91, 177
Ferguson, John, (BFL), 207
Fitzpatrick, John, (CFL), 123, 128
Flett, John A., (AFL), 101
Forman, Martha Ogle, 18th-century plantation manager, 7–8
Freeman, Mary Wilkins, 11
Gannett, Mary Thorn Lewis, middle-class ally of Rochester strikers, 107
Garber, Yale, (Apparel Manufacturers Association), 292
Garment industry. See Apparel industry
Gartland, Elizabeth, 19th-century dressmaker, 11
German immigrant workers, 96
German Jewish factory owners, 116, 158–160, 198
Glick, Hannah Shapiro, Chicago striker, 114, 120, 124–125, 130, 132–133
Godey’s Lady’s Book and Magazine, 10–11, 37, 64, 66, 67
Goldblatt, Miss S., (ACWA), 132
Goldman, Emma, 109
Gompers, Samuel, (AFL), 89, 175
Gordon, Fannie, injured in Rochester strike, 102
Gries, Rabbi Moses, 159
Grover and Baker Sewing Machine Company: early production years, 31–34; marketing, 36–37
Grover, W. D., sewing machine inventor, 35
Haitian immigrant workers, 289
Harper’s Bazaar, 67
Hart, Harry, co-owner Hart, Schaffner & Marx, 122, 127
Hart, Schaffner & Marx: antiunionism of, 119; and Chicago strike, 114–115, 120–121, 125, 127–130, 202; founding of, 117
Hauser, Elizabeth, (Cleveland Women’s Suffrage League), 156
Hawaiian women and ideal of domesticity, xii–xiii
H. Black & Co., 159
Hearth and Home, 65
Henry Sonneborn and Company, 203–205, 208
Hillman, Sidney, 115, 121, 123, 130; marriage of, to Bessie Abramovitch, 132–133; as president of ACWA, 203–205, 221, 290
Hiram House (Cleveland), 158
Hirsch, Rabbi Emil, 124
Hirsch-Wickwire, 121
Hispanic immigrant workers, 185, 278–280, 284, 287–288; women, 187–188, 190–191
House of Kuppenheimer, 117, 121, 128
House of Mirth, The, 11
Howe, Mrs. Frederick D., (WTUL), 157
How the Other Half Lives, 85
Hnetynka, Alberta, Chicago striker, 130
Hull House (Chicago), 115, 121, 124, 130
Hunt, Caroline, 14
Hunt, Walter, sewing machine inventor, 12–14, 31
ILGWU. See International Ladies Garment Workers Union
Illinois Board of Arbitration, 127
Industrial Union of Needle Trade Workers, 186–187
Industrial Workers of the World, 88–90, 175; in Baltimore strike, 207–209; in Chicago strike, 130; in Rochester strike, 103
INS. See U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service
“Inside” shops, 39–42, 69–72, 98, 282
International Ladies Garment Workers Union: anti-immigrant position of, 291; and Chicago strike, 115; and Cleveland strike, 146–148, 151, 163; early years of, 88–92, 201, 290; in Los Angeles, 188; male domination of, xvi–xx; and New York strike, 168, 170–175, 177–179; present-day policies, 292–293; in Texas, 191; women in, xiv
Italian contractors, 116
Italian immigrant workers: in Baltimore, 198; in Chicago, 118–120, 122, 127, 130, 187–188; in Cleveland, 147–149, 161; in New York, 167–168; in Rochester strike, 103, 108–110; women, xiii, 96, 108–109
IUNTW. See Industrial Union of Needle Trade Workers
IWW. See Industrial Workers of the World
Jacobs, Dorothy. See Bellanca, Dorothy Jacobs
Jewish contractors, 116–117, 147
Jewish factory owners, 158–160
Jewish immigrant workers: in Baltimore, 198–200; in Chicago, 118, 120, 122, 125; in Cleveland, 147–149, 161; in New York, 167–168, 170–171, 174–176; unionization of, 88, 90, 175, 200; women, xiii, 108–110, 178–180, 199. See also German Jewish factory owners, Russian Jewish immigrant workers
Jewish Independent, 159
Jewish socialism, 170–171
Joseph, Isaac, Cleveland manufacturer, 159
Jung Sai strike, xviii
Katz, Louis, (ILGWU), 149
Knights of Labor, 98–99, 118, 190
Kuh, Nathan, Fisher & Company, 126
Kuppenheimer, Louis, 119, 121–122
Kuppenheimer’s. See House of Kuppenheimer
Labor historiography, 86, 147, 172–180, 187
Labor law: in New Deal, 218–219; in New York, 91, 292; in Texas, 191, 275
Labor movement: cooperation with management, xv-xvi, 188, 190, 271–272; in Great Depression, xv, 218–222; interunion support in, 115, 124, 208, 248, 253–255, 261; male attitude toward women in, xiii–xiv, 173, 185, 191, 210, 219, 222; middle-class women’s alliance with strikers in, xiv–xv, 83, 87, 91, 104–108, 115, 169–170, 177–178; middle-class women’s nonalliance with strikers in, 104, 146–147, 155–160, 164, 188; self-confidence among female workers in, xix, 160–162, 247–248, 253, 256–259, 276; strikes in, frequency of, 86, 99–100, 190–191; violence and, xiv, 102–104, 126–129, 151–154, 169, 175, 207, 250; women in, xiii, 83, 89–92, 108–111, 119, 151–158, 162–164, 168–169, 199, 213–223; and women’s issues, xix, 286–287, 291–292; in World War I, 195, 211, 214–215; post–World War I, xv, 92, 186–187, 195–196, 214–215
Ladies’ Garment Worker, 153
Landers, Samuel, (UGWA), 123
La Paroladel Socialisti, 130
Lawczyinski, Father, 128
Lazinskas, Charles, killed in Chicago strike, 127
Lemlich, Clara, New York striker, 167–168
Lindstrom, Ellen, 119
Lithuanian contractors, 116
Lithuanian immigrant workers, 199
London, Meyer, (ILGWU), 149
Lubin, Morris, agent provocateur in Cleveland strike, 153
Lynn, Massachusetts, mechanization of local industry in, 6
Madame Demorest’s Quarterly Mirror of Fashions, 67
Magriz, Isabel, New York garment worker, 280, 287
Mantua makers. See Dressmakers
Marx, Karl, 98–99
Masilotti, Clara, (WTUL), 122, 124, 133
Matyas, Jean, (ILGWU), 188
McClellan, Mayor George, (New York), 170
Men’s clothing industry. See Apparel industry; Clothing, men’s
Merriam, Charles E., Chicago City Council member, 127
Metzger, Bishop Sidney, 251
Mexican Friends Service Committee, xix
Mexican workers, xix, 236–240, 250, 273, 288
Meyer, Carl, Board of Arbitration, Chicago strike, 131
Michael Stern Company: as indicator of women’s wages, 96
Mielewski, Josie, Chicago striker, 126
Morgan, J. P., 168
Moriarty, Rose, social worker during
Cleveland strike, 156
Muñoz, Father Jesse, 251–252
Murphy, Charles, owner, Chicago Cubs, 128
Nagreckis, Frank, killed in Chicago strike, 128
Najarro, Wilma, (ACTWU), 289
Nation, 67
National Association of Clothiers, 119
National Association of Manufacturers, 119
National Dollar Store, 188
National Labor Review Board, 143, 163
National Women’s Trade Union League, xiv, 90–92, 104, 115, 223; in Chicago strike, 115, 122–124, 128, 130; in Cleveland strike, 151, 157; in New York strike, 169–171, 176–178
Needlework industry. See Apparel industry
Nestor, Agnes, (WTUL), 123, 133
Newman, Pauline, (WTUL), 91–92, 151, 187; in Cleveland strike, 154–155, 157, 162; in New York strike, 178
New York apparel industry, 84, 168, 189–191, 279–282, 289
New York Commission for Occupational Safety and Health, 285
New York Labor Department, 280–281
New York police, reaction to strike, 169–170
New York State Bureau of Mediation and Arbitration, 171
New York strikes: beginning of 1909, 167, 197; manufacturers’ reactions in 1909 to, 169–171; of 1905, 100; relief for 1909 strikers during, 171; of 1926, 186
NLRB. See National Labor Review Board
Nockles, Edward, (CFL), 123
Noree, Marie, New York garment worker, 289
Noren, Robert, (UGWA), 122, 123
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 286
Ohio State Arbitration Board, 152, 154
O’Reilly, Leonora, (WTUL), 104, 177
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health Administration
“Outside” shops, 39–42, 97, 282
Pagonni, Charles, speaker at Cleveland strike, 149
Perez, Elsa, New York garment worker, 287
Pesotta, Rose, (ILGWU), 180, 187–188
Pischel, Emma, (WTUL), 128
Polish immigrant workers: in Baltimore, 198; in Chicago, 120, 125, 128; in Rochester, 96
Potofsky, Jacob, Chicago striker, 121
Potter, Orlando, president of sewing machine company, 35
Prinz-Biederman, 148
Protective Association of Manufacturers (New York), 147, 171
Protocol of Peace, 147, 172, 190, 290
Prudence Manufacturing, 280
Puerto Rican immigrant workers, 280, 284
Putnam’s Monthly, 62
Quilting, 16–17
Quincy Hall Clothing Manufacturers, mechanization of, 14
Red Scare of 1919, xv, 186, 213
Reinhart, Fred, death in Chicago strike, 129
Richert, Thomas, president of UGWA, 122–123, 130–131, 201–202
Riis, Jacob, 85
Robins, Margaret Dreier, president of WTUL, 115, 123–125, 128, 132, 157; New York strike, 170
Rochester apparel industry, 84, 95–98, 100
Rochester Socialist Party, 103
Rochester strike: beginning of, 101–102; demands of strikers, 101; manufacturers’ reactions to, 103; settlement of, 110
Rodriguez, Nilda, New York garment worker, 282–285
Royal Tailors, 117
Rudnitsky, Anna, Chicago garment worker, 125
Rumanian immigrant workers, 120
Rumball, Catherine, Rochester reformer, 105, 107–108
Rumball, Edwin A., Rochester reformer, 105, 110
Runaway shops, xv–xvi, 196–197, 215–218, 223, 275
Russian Jewish immigrant workers, 120, 171, 174, 198, 200
Santora, Mamie, (ACWA), 214
Saturday Evening Post, 117
Sauer, Valentine, Chicago shop owner, 102
Scab labor. See Strikebreakers
Scandinavian contractors, 116
Scandinavian immigrant workers, 117, 119
Schaffner, Joseph, co-owner, Hart, Schaffner & Marx, 127
Schlossberg, Joseph, (ACWA), 201, 208
Schneiderman, Rose, (ILGWU), 168, 177–178, 180
Scotch Woolen Mills, 117
Seamstresses, 10; black, 7–9; at A. T. Stewart’s, 69–74; and the sewing machine, 45–47; working conditions of, 22–25, 98
Seamstresses Protective Association, 98
Sears catalog, 13
Sewing: in colonial America, xi, 3–6; and factory-made cotton yarn and cloth, 6–7; fancy, 16–17; and industrialization, xi–xii, 8–9, 15, 17; and mechanization, 13–16, 25; and technological innovations, 10–12, 28–29, 36–37
Sewing machine, xii, 13, 17; early production of, 31–36; influence on fashion, 37, 71–72; marketing of, 35–37; Singer Standard No. 1, 14; as symbol of respectability, 37–38; and technological developments, 30–31
Sewing Machine “Combination,” 32, 34–35
Shapiro, Hannah or Annie. See Glick, Hannah Shapiro
Shoemaking, 18th-century, 5–6
Smith-Lever Act, 12
Socialist Party: in Cleveland, 162; in New York, 169, 171, 177
Socialist Women’s Strike Committee, 124
Society Brand, 117
Sonneborn’s. See Henry Sonneborn and Company
Special Order Clothing Makers’ Union, 119
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 60
Starr, Ellen Gates, cofounder of Hull House, 124, 126
Steghagen, Ellen, (WTUL), 126
Sternheim, Emanuel, director, Council Education Alliance, 160
Stewart, Alexander T., 61–63, 73
Strikebreakers: in Chicago, 126–127; in Cleveland, 162–163; at Farah, 249–250, 263; in New York in 1926, 187
Sweatshops, xvi–xvii, 85, 191; Chicago, 116–118; Cleveland, 148; Rochester, 97–98, 100–101, 110; present-day, 192, 279, 286. See also “Outside” shops
Tailors, 18th-century, 4; 19th-century, 8, 10, 22, 28–29; and Knights of Labor, 98–99. See also Apparel industry, sex segregation of duties
Teger, Rachel, black seamstress, 7–9
Textile production: at Farah, 267; technological developments in, 25–27
Textile Workers Organizing Committee (CIO), 219
Thomas, Norman, (Socialist Party), 103
Tomasek, John, Bohemian contractors representative, 149
Top Notch clothing plant strike, 242
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, 91
UGWA. See United Garment Workers of America
Unger, Nick, (ACTWU), 293
Unidad Para Siempre, 259–260, 272
Unions. See specific union names
United Farm Workers, 261
United Garment Workers of America: anti-immigrant policies of, 118–119, 200–204; in Baltimore strike, 197, 200–204; in Chicago strike, 122–123, 126–127, 130–132; in Cleveland strike, 146; convention in Nashville, 1914, 202–203, 205; early years of, 88–90; in Rochester strike, 99–100, 103, 110; and women, 99–101, 111, 118
United Hebrew Trades, 118, 171
U.S. Agriculture Extension Service, 12
U.S. Commission of Industrial Relations, 175
U.S. Department of Labor, 279; H-2 program of, 236
U.S. Immigration Commission, 117
U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, xvii–xviii, 236
U.S. Industrial Regulations Commission, 127
Valesh, Eva McDonald, (WTUL), 178
Veblen, Thorstein, theory of “conspicuous consumption,” 9, 67
Velasco, Olga, union organizer, 279–280
Vorse, Mrs. Myron, (Women’s Suffrage League), 156
Wanamaker and Brown’s Department Store, 41
WCTU. See Women’s Christian Temperance Union
Weiss, Ferdinand, death in Chicago strike, 129
Welfare capitalism, 107, 164, 229–230, 234
Wheeler, Candace, founder of Women’s Exchange, 17
Wheeler, Nathaniel, sewing machine inventor, 34–35
Wheeler and Wilson: early sewing machines, 31–34; experiments in production, 71; marketing, 36–37
W. H. Taylor Company, 43
Wilson, Allen B., sewing machine inventor, 34
Winchester Shirr Facrory, mechanization of, 15
Wing, Marie, (YWCA), 157
Woman’s Journal, 74
Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 157
Women’s clothing. See Clothing, women’s; Fashion
Women’s Exchange, 17
“Women’s Organizing Campaign,” xx
Women’s Protective Union, 98
Wool, Bina, Chicago garment worker, 125
Workingman’s Advocate, 38