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Domesticity and Dirt: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920–1945: Index

Domesticity and Dirt: Housewives and Domestic Servants in the United States, 1920–1945

Index

Index

Adkins v. Children’s Hospital, 115

Afro-American women: in domestic service, 6, 12–13, 67–68, 69, 86, 182n.4; in domestic worker unions, 126; employer attitudes toward, as domestics, 61, 74, 84; families of, as domestics, workers, 12–13, 70, 183n.8; and New Deal, 100, 104, 108, 109, 119–21; as sexual objects, 203nn.12,14; and training in home economics, 94–95, 97, 98–99, 101; and treatment under Social Security Act, 131, 132–33, 199n.84, 200n.90; in YWCA, 120, 123

Aging. See Beauty

Allen, Ida Bailey, 17–18, 23

Altmeyer, Arthur, 131

Ambrose Holt and Family (Susan Glaspell), 34–35

American Association of University Women (AAUW): and members as domestic service employers, 8, 180n.61; and work to improve domestic service, 125

American Federation of Labor (AFL). See Labor unions

“American girl,” 21

American Home Economics Association (AHEA), 90, 116, 132; and adoption of vocational education laws, 92–93

American Indian women: in domestic service, 6, 12, 67, 68, 70, 182n.3; and home economics, 97

Ames, Jessie Daniel, 123–24

Anderson, Mary, 77, 80, 116, 117, 120, 123–24

Andrews, Benjamin, 52, 116, 122

Andrews, Dana, 31, 38

Another Thin Man, 19, 31, 37

Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 94

Asian-American. See Chinese-American domestics; Japanese-American domestics

Atlanta, Ga., 72, 84, 124, 126

Bailey, Beth L., 38

Baltimore, Md., 83, 86, 108, 115, 120, 126, 129, 133, 134, 181n.71, 183n.8

Barberry Bush (Kathleen Norris), 23–24

Baylor, Adelaide, 95

Beauty, 137; denial of aging and, 149–50; and exercise, 33; as female obsession, 204n.29; of home, 27; as requirement for wives, 23, 33, 56, 137, 148, 150; of wife, and cosmetics, 36

Beavers, Louise, 40

Berlin, Mrs. Irving, 134

Bernstein, Irving, 119

Bethune, Mary McLeod, 108

Best Years of Our Lives, The, 19, 31, 35, 38, 40

Blackwelder, Julia Kirk, 132

Black women. See Afro-American women

Blair, Emily Newall, 27, 173n.32

Blonde Venus, 19, 38, 40

Bobbitt, Pearl, 120

Boettiger, Anna Roosevelt, 129–30

Broun, Heywood, 126

Burroughs, Nannie Helen, 98–99, 116

Bush, George, 159

Businessman’s wife, 41; definition, 175n.5

California, 130

Carner, Lucy, 116, 117–18

Cates, Jerry, 132

Chicago, Ill., 56, 70, 81–83, 117, 120, 124, 126, 154

Child care, 49, 56–60, 159, 160, 164n.2; training in, 95–99, 105, 107, 108

Child rearing, 45, 181–82n.2

Children: and ADC, 130, 132, 190n.39; and dirt, 205n.31; employers’, and servants, 45, 70, 75, 77, 81, 84, 134, 186n.44; and housework, 51, 64; as less important than men, for women, 32, 37, 45; men as, 31; numbers of, in families, 9, 156; and psychological development, 141–43, 176n.8, 202nn.8,9; women’s responsibility for, 2, 3, 4, 5–7, 23, 25, 28–29, 41, 48–49, 110, 145, 151, 153, 157, 161, 164–65nn.3,4

Chinese-American domestics, 182n.3

Chodorow, Nancy, 141

Church: domestic workers’ attachments to, 66–67, 69, 124, 181n.2, 183n.12, 184n.17; employer attendance at, 48, 77

CIO. See Labor unions

Civil rights for domestics. See NAACP; National Negro Congress; National Urban League

Cleaning: divisions among women, in, 146–47; in housework routine, 46–52, 57, 59, 61, 69, 75–76, 78–80, 153; after meals, 56, 81; personal, as need for women, 33, 39, 149; social responsibility for, 159–60; standards for, 53, 70, 83, 87, 148; training in, 98, 101, 105, 107, 109; women’s responsibility for, 3, 5, 7, 45, 134, 156–57, 177–78n.27; in work relief projects, 102–3

Cleanliness: and dirt dualism, 150; of domestics, 62; of home, 51, 53; of MCHs, 35, 109, 138

Collars, men’s, 52, 178n.28

Commodification of the home, 18, 171n.2

Companionate marriage, 37, 167n.17

Conservative attitudes toward women’s roles, 63; in Depression, 164n.3; in 1920s, 2, 164n.1; in WW II, 2, 165n.4

Consumption: as erotic substitute, 201n.6; as role of housewife, 5, 19, 22–36, 42, 91; as national value, 171n.4

Cook, duties of, 79

Cooking: and black women, 30–31, 40; description of, in house, 53–56; and dirt, 146; and domestic workers, 70, 75, 79–81; in housework schedule, 47–49, 53–57, 59, 60, 76; social responsibility for, 157; training in, 94–97, 99–102, 105, 107, 108; women’s responsibility for, 158, 160, 164n.2. See also Nutrition

Cosmetics, 23, 35, 36, 151

Cott, Nancy, 31

Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 7

“Cult of True Womanhood,” 5, 171n.4

Cuomo, Mario, 157

Dating, 38

Davenport, Doris, 151

Davis, Katherine, 153

Days off, 77–78

Day work, 6, 8, 60, 68–71, 83, 86, 115, 155, 158; duties for servants in, 53, 69

Dieckman, Annetta, 117, 124

Dietrich, Marlene, 19, 38, 40

Dinnerstein, Dorothy, 141, 176n.8

Dirt, 159; association with bodies, 149; association with food, 179n.51; association with sex, 143–44; association with women, 143–44; association with women of color, 16, 140, 146, 150; association with working-class women, 146, 204n.22; conceptions of, 139–40, 200n.2, 201n.5; psychoanalytic explanations of, 140–42, 201n.5. See also Purity; Whiteness, as identity

Divorce, 24, 90, 159

Dodge, Elizabeth, 113

Domestic and personal service: job titles for, 79, 154, 156, 166n.12; kinds of households employing, 8–13, 168n.26; legislation and, 112, 114, 119, 130, 205n.7; model contracts for, 124–25; in New Deal projects, 104, 109; numbers of employers of, 8, 9–10, 167n.22; numbers of women in, xiii, 7–13, 156, 167n.22, 169nn.32,34; racial-ethnic representation in, 67–68; USES and, 128–29; vocational training for, 92, 94, 97, 98, 100; after WW II, 153

Domestic revolution, 5

Domestic servant: family responsibilities of, 69–70, 86, 132; in workers’ summer schools, 194n.18. See also Day work; Domestic and personal service; Maid; Part-time employee

Domestic Service (Lucy Maynard Salmon), 118

Douglas, Mary, 139–40

Douglas, Melvyn, 37, 38

Drinking, disapproved of, by servants, 61, 66–67

Dudden, Faye, 5

Dudley, Edith, 118

Dukakis, Michael, 160

Emerson, Mrs. Kendall, 124

Emotion, housewife’s management of, 41, 100

Employment, middle-class women’s gainful: married women’s, 18, 164–65n.3; married women’s, and need for domestic help, 11, 77; opposition to, 2

Ephron, Nora, 23

Euro-American domestics. See White women, as domestics

European immigrant domestics, 6

Exercise, 33, 46. See also Beauty

Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) (1938), 107, 155; race and gender differences under, 121

FDR. See Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), 90, 122; women’s projects of, 101–2, 104

Field, Amy Walker, 114

Firth, Violet M., 125

Fisher, Dorothy Canfield, 19, 22

Flax, Jane, 141

Food. See Cooking; Nutrition

Forbush, A. R., 120

Frederick, Christine, 26, 47, 54, 55, 69–70

French Canadian domestics, 67

French domestics, 67

Freud, Sigmund, 140–42

Friedan, Betty, 64, 156

Gandhi, Mahatma, 159

General Federation of Women’s Clubs, 125

George-Deen Act (1937), 94, 97

George-Ellzey Act (1934), 93–94

George-Reed Act (1929), 93

German domestics, 67, 109–10

Gilbreth, Lillian M., 28–29, 34

Gilder, George, 157

Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, 2, 91

Glaspell, Susan, 19, 34, 35

Glenn, Evelyn Nakano, 68

Grant, Cary, 19, 37–39

Groves, Ernest, 37

Groves, Gladys, 37

Haynes, Elizabeth Ross, 69, 70

Heads of household, women as, 86, 102, 104, 190n.39

Health: of domestics, 79, 82, 84, 85, 105, 107; food for, 53, 103, 158; of housewife, 66, 149; social responsi-bility for, 160–61

Hepburn, Katharine, 19, 38–39

Heterosexual intimacy. See Sex, hetero-sexual

Hill, T. Arnold, 118

Holmes, Josephine, 116

Home: business in, 25; imagery of, 17–18, 27–29, 30, 40, 87, 158–59, 166n.11, 167n.18, 171 n.4; as linked with sensual existence, 145–48; as men’s work reward, 43–45, 176n.10; as unpolluted, 177n.27

Home economies: black educators and, 94, 98–99; black women in, 94–95, 97–99; careers for women in, 89, 93, 95, 102, 103, 116, 117, 187n.2, 188n.8; and housework standards, 46; and men, 187n.1; and New Deal employment, 102, 103; segregated training in, 94, 96–98, 100; as women’s profession, 90–91, 148–49

Homemaking: as concept of housewife’s role, 22, 28, 73, 92–93, 148–49; as distinct from housework, 42, 63; in home economics, 95–96, 99–100, 110; in New Deal projects, 109; as profession, 29

Hospitality: with men as hosts, 44; and stress on domestic worker, 80–81

Hours of work: for domestic worker, 51, 69–70, 76–77, 81; for housewife, 76; and labor unions, 126; New Deal regulation of, 119, 121; and overtime pay, 121–22, 196n.42; schedules of, 75, 78–79; as source of tension in domestic work, 59, 74–75, 78–79; state regulation of, 114, 129–30; voluntary contracts for, 118, 122, 124–25. See also Days off; On call

Household equipment, 4, 33, 82

Household workers’ training, 105, 107–8, 109–10

Housekeeping aides, 102–4

Houseworkers, general, 156; duties of, 47, 79

Howes, Ethel Puffer, 46

Hungarian domestics, 67

Hurst, Fannie, 19, 27, 30, 36, 134

Imitation of Life (Fannie Hurst), 30–31, 40

Immigrant workers, 4, 67, 84, 158, 160

Income, of households employing domestics, 8–9

Indianapolis, Ind., 9, 10, 12–13

Institute for the Co-Ordination of Women’s Interests (Smith College), 46, 57

Institute of Euthenics (Vassar College), 46

Interracial cooperation, 119–20, 123–35, 195nn.29,31

Irish domestics, 67, 69, 146

Jackson, Jesse, 161

Jackson, Miss., 9–10, 12–13, 120, 126

Japanese-American domestics, 6, 12, 68, 170n.35

Jewish women: as domestic servants, 110; as employers of domestic servants, 182n.6

Johnson, General Hugh, 119, 120

Jones, Jacqueline, 67

Jordan, Winthrop D., 140

Junior League, 125

Kansas City, Mo., 120, 126

Kittrell, Flemmie, 94, 95

Kitty Foyle (Christopher Morley), 19, 35, 37, 40

Kneeland, Hildegarde, 75–76

Kyrk, Hazel, 117, 124

Labor unions: of domestic workers, 116, 120, 125–27, 134, 198n.66; and organization of domestic workers, 112, 126–27, 130

Lamont, Mrs. Corliss, 134

Lansing, Mich., 9, 10, 11

Laundress, 10, 53, 79

Laundry: in housework schedule, 47–49, 57, 75, 76, 87, 109; as source of pollution, 52, 177n.27; steps of, in home, 52–53, 79–80; training in, 97, 98, 105; types of commercial, 10, 69, 149; types of households purchasing, 9–11; women working in, 12, 65, 69; as women’s responsibility, 45, 60–61, 102, 104, 157, 159

League of Women Shoppers, 200n.92

League of Women Voters, 123, 125, 129, 132

Leftovers, 55, 148

Lesbians: hostility to, in 1920s, 3, 164n.1; and sex, 205n.30

Lewis, John L., 121

Lewis, Sinclair, 19, 21, 27, 31, 33

Lithuanian domestics, 67

Live-in service, 6, 7, 56, 71, 105, 107, 154; conditions of work in, 113, 118, 124; housework schedule with, 57, 70; as preferred by domestics, 68, 70–71; as preferred by employers, 8, 58, 60, 61, 153

Live-out service, 8, 66, 68, 69, 71, 105, 113, 115; conditions of work in, 60, 107, 118; housework schedule with, 77, 153

Los Angeles, Calif., 9, 10, 11

Loy, Myrna, 19, 24, 31, 37, 38

Lummox (Fannie Hurst), 27, 36

Lyford, Carrie, 98

Magnus, Erna, 133, 185n.26

Maid: as caretaker of employer, 24; hiring of, as sign of social status, 26; as inferior to mistress, 4, 34, 62, 63, 67–68; as label for domestic worker, 156, 158; as linked with dirt and sex, 140, 146; work schedule of, 48–49, 50, 51, 61. See also Domestic servant

Main Street (Sinclair Lewis), 19–20, 21, 27, 33, 40

Management: as conception of house-wife’s job, 26, 28, 42, 45, 46, 116, 148; of home, in home economics, 95, 97, 100, 103, 154; in housewife’s schedule, 50, 76

Manners: for dinner service, 54; for servant, 62, 98, 107–8

March, Fredric, 19

Marriage: and career, 8, 90, 92, 93, 110; of domestic workers, 68, 85; as ideal for women, 5, 6, 20, 22, 150, 157; men’s attitudes toward, 64, 99; in popular culture, 19, 21, 27; sex in, 36–37, 39, 143, 144–45, 151

Marshall, Herbert, 19

Mason, Lucy Randolph, 125

Maternalism, 4

Matthews, Glenna, 18

May, Elaine Tyler, 18

MCH. See Middle-class housewives

Men: as center of women’s existence, 6, 137; in competition with women, 101–2; and home economics, 90–91, 187n.1; housework expectations of, 15, 24, 27, 44–45, 52, 53, 139; and labor regulation, 112, 119, 121, 131; psychological analysis of, 141–42, 202 n. 7, 203 nn. 16, 19; women’s expectations of, 33, 35, 37, 39, 143–45, 149; as women’s partners, 7, 18, 20, 139; work of, 148

Mexican-American women: as domestics, 6, 12, 68, 70, 169–70n.34; and home economics, 96, 97; in New Deal projects, 109

Middle-class housewives: as “good” women, 138–39; popular culture images of, 19, 171 n. 1; self-conceptions of, 18, 40, 148–49; work of, 2, 22–23, 42, 46–51, 153, 156

Milwaukee, Wis., 126

Minimum wage: extent of workers’ coverage by regulations of, 121, 130, 155, 158; history of laws for, 114–15, 119; in model contracts, 118. See also Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

Modern woman, 6, 21

Morgenthau, Henry, 131

Morley, Christopher, 19, 35

Motherhood, 8, 31, 36, 151, 157

Mr. Blandings Builds His Dream House, 7, 19, 37, 40

Muller v. Oregon (1908), 114

NAACP: as advocate of domestic servants, 112; as critic of New Deal programs, 100, 119, 131; domestic servants’ letters to, 74–75, 81

National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs, 125

National Committee on Employer-Employee Relationships in the Home. See National Committee on House-hold Employment

National Committee on Household Employment (NCHE), 116, 118, 120, 122, 124, 126, 133, 153; and Eleanor Roosevelt, 122; and organization for improving domestic work, 116, 118, 120, 126, 133; and standards for domestic employment, 106, 118, 124, 156

National Consumers’ League (NCL), 112, 119, 125

National Council of Jewish Women, 105, 123, 129

National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) (1933), 119, 120

National Negro Congress, 126, 133

National Recovery Administration (NRA): exclusion of domestic workers from, 120–22, 127; race and gender discrimination in, 119, 195n.25

National Reemployment Service (NRS). See United States Employment Service (USES)

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE), 92. See also National Society for Vocational Education (NSVE)

National Society for Vocational Education (NSVE), 93

National Urban League, 112, 118, 126, 154

National Women’s Trade Union League (NWTUL), 112, 114, 123, 130, 134, 197n.48, 200n.91

National Youth Administration (NYA), 129; race and gender discrimination in, 108–10

Negro. See Afro-American women

Negro Workers’ Council, 198n.65

New Deal, 129; legislation for workers in, 71, 106–7, 112, 126; race and gender discrimination in, 100–101, 108–9, 118–23, 195n.25; women’s work relief projects in, 90, 101–6, 107–10

New Woman, 21, 25

New York, 126, 130, 134, 154

Nicholson, Gene, 127

Norris, Charles G., 19, 32

Norris, Frank, 19

Norris, Kathleen, 19, 23

Nutrition, 53, 55, 96–97, 103, 158, 178n.33

Oakland, Calif., 126, 127, 130

Object-relations theory, 141

Occupational hazards, in domestic work, 82–83; and burns, 79, 186n.46; and cleaning with chemicals, 82; and confinement, 82; and cuts, 186n.46; and diet, 83; and scrubbing, 83; and standing, 82

O’Donnell, Cathy, 35

On call: definitions of, 118, 124; in domestic workers’ schedule, 57, 58, 75, 77, 80; as source of housewife–domestic conflict, 78–79

Opportunity homes, 118

Parallel Lives (Phyllis Rose), 20

Park, Marion Edwards, 115

Part-time employee, 51, 60, 69–70, 184n.24

Perkins, Frances, letters to, 71–73, 77–81, 83

Philadelphia, Penn., 56, 68, 86, 115, 120, 126

Philadelphia Story, The, 19, 38–39

Portland, Maine, 9, 10, 11

Postmodernist, 15

Powell, William, 19, 31, 37

“Problem that has no name,” 64, 156

Professionalization, 91

Prohibition, 61, 66

Protective labor laws, 114–15, 121–22

Puerto Rican domestics, 134, 154

Purity, 150; and association with white, middle-class housewife, 16, 138–39, 144; as standard for middle-class homes, 53, 147–48. See also Cleanliness

Reagan, Ronald, 157

Refrigeration, 56, 148

Richards, Ellen Swallow, 91

Roelofs, Henrietta, 92, 95, 113, 195n.29

Rogers, Ginger, 37

Rollins, Judith, 4

Romero, Mary, 158

Roosevelt, Eleanor, 71, 78, 106, 122, 123, 129–30

Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 71; letters to, 73, 81–84

Rose, Phyllis, 20

Rural migrant, 6

Russell, Harold, 35

Ryan, Neva, 120

St. Louis, Mo., 77, 120, 126, 154

Salmon, Lucy Maynard, 118, 184n.25

San Diego, Calif., 126–27

Scandinavian domestics, 67, 182n.3

Schedules, housework: of domestic workers, 69–70, 75–79, 158; of housewives, 56–57, 58

Scientific management. See Management

Scottish domestics, 67

Seattle, Wash., 73, 126

Serving meals, 30, 49, 54

Sewing, 76, 96, 100, 109; in women’s work relief projects, 102, 104–5, 191 n.52

Sex: association with dirt, 138–41; association with food, 204 n.29; association with working-class women and women of color, 143–45, 202n.9, 203n.12; heterosexual, and women’s responsibility in, 36–39, 150–51, 203n.14; unconscious feelings about, infant development of, 141–43; women’s, men’s fear of, 202 n. 7, 203 n. 16. See also Lesbians

Sexual division of labor, 157; in New Deal education and work projects, 101–2; in professions, 90, 93, 187 nn. 1,2

Sexuality: women’s heterosexual, as career, 3; homosexual, 15; of servants, 27, 62

Slav domestics, 67

“Slave market,” Bronx, 72

Slavery: and American unconscious, 140, 146, 201 n.6; as analogy for domestic work, 72–73; domestic service in, 4, 6, 138–39; as precedent for domestic work, 12, 185n.27; and sexuality, 144

Smith, Hilda Worthington, 101

Smith, Lillian, 202n.9

Smith Rosenberg, Carroll, 6

Smith College, 46, 57, 115

Smith-Hughes Act (1917), 90, 92–93, 97, 98

Smoking, disapproved of, by servants, 61, 66–67

Snedden, David, 92

Social Security Act (1935), 101, 133; ADC and race differentials under, 132–33, 200n.90; exclusions of domestic workers from, 127; 1939 Amendments, 130, 132–33, 155; Old Age Assistance and domestic workers under, 131, 132, 199nn.84,87; provisions of, 130, 199n.85; race and gender differences under, 131; and retirement benefits for domestics under, 133, 155, 158; and unemployment assistance for domestics, 155

Spock, Mrs. Benjamin, 134

Standard of living, 22, 24, 26, 99, 171 n.4

Stanley, Louise, 116, 117

Steinberg, Ronnie, 121

Stewart, Jimmy, 39

Stigler, George J., 9

Suffrage, women’s, 3, 20, 21, 113, 114, 150

Summer industrial conference, YWCA, 117, 120, 123

Swain, Martha, 102, 108

Swiss domestics, 67

Talbot, Marion, 91

Thin Man, The, 19, 24, 31

Thompson, Clara, 143

Townsend, Dr. Francis, 131

Unemployment compensation, 130, 131, 134, 155

Uniforms, domestic workers’, 11, 85, 98, 105, 116

Union. See Labor unions

United States Employment Service (USES): and placement of domestic workers, 127–29, 156; and standards for domestic work, 107, 127, 155

van Rensselaer, Martha, 91

Van Slyck, Katherine R., 125

Vassar College, 46

Virgin/whore dichotomy, 144

Vocational education. See Home economics

Wages: of domestic workers, 60, 65, 69, 71, 79, 83–86, 134, 154, 183n.14; in-kind, for domestic workers, 73, 83, 84, 118, 185n.27; in model contracts, 124; security of, in New Deal, 102, 104, 106, 191n.52; and USES, 129, 155; of women, 145, 159, 196n.42, 199n.76. See also Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA); Minimum wage; National Recovery Administration (NRA)

Wagner, Senator Robert, 126, 127, 134

Wagner Labor Relations Act (1935), 126

Warrick, Emily, 123

Washington, Booker T., 94

Washington, D.C., 21, 70, 83, 98, 104, 126, 134, 158, 160

Washington State, 129

Weaver, Robert, 119–20, 195n.29

Wells, Dorothy, 118, 122

Welter, Barbara, 5, 18–19

West Indian domestics, 67, 181–82n.2

White, Walter, 131

Whiteness, as identity, 14, 16, 138, 147–51, 170–71n.40

White women: class differences among, 15, 146–47; as domestics, 12, 67, 68, 70, 86, 104, 134, 182n.4; as employers of domestics, 6, 40, 110; home economics training of, 94–95, 97; under New Deal, 119; as pure beings, 138–39, 144, 150–51, 203n.14

Wisconsin, 129

Wladaver-Morgan, Susan, 102

Women’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, 112, 115, 116, 119, 120, 122, 133, 154, 156

Women’s clubs, 42, 43, 45, 61, 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 194n.13

Women’s liberation movement, 157

Women’s Trade Union League. See National Women’s Trade Union League (NWTUL)

Women workers, summer schools for, 194 n.18

Woodward, Ellen, 79, 102, 104–6, 108, 122

Woolman, Mary Schenck, 91

Works Progress Administration (WPA): and domestic work projects, 79, 84, 99, 105–8, 122, 129, 190n.39, 199nn.48,52; and women’s projects, 101–8, 110

World War 1, 2, 12, 20, 21, 52, 63, 67, 113, 115, 127

World War II, 2, 12, 18, 45, 63, 133, 149; conservative effects on married women of, 165n.4

Wright, Teresa, 31

Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA): as advocate of domestic service reform, 92, 99, 105, 106, 112, 113, 115–18, 122–27, 133; as advocate of employer-employee understanding, 60, 63, 127, 186n.44; and attitudes of domestic workers in, 75, 78, 112, 117, 120, 130, and attitudes of middle-class housewives in, 54, 115, 117, 125, 154; surveys of domestic work by, 70–71, 83–84, 129, 155. See also Interracial cooperation

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